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The Lake History Stories 



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SCOTT, FOEESMAN AND COMPANY 

Chicago New York 



—J*. 



OLD WOELD BACKGROUND 
TO AMERICAN HISTORY 

AN ELEMENTARY HISTORY FOR THE 
GRADES OR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 

REVISED EDITION OF "THE STORY OF EUROPE" 



BY 

SAMUEL BANNISTER HARDING, Ph.D. 

AUTHOR OF "NEW MEDIEVAL AND MODERN HISTORY," "SELECT ORATIONS 
IN AMERICAN HISTORY," "EUROPEAN HISTORY CHARTS," ETC. 

AND 

MARGARET SNODGRASS HARDING, A.M. 



SCOTT, FORESMAN AND COMPANY 
CHICAGO NEW YORK 



ni^ 



COPTEIGHT, 1919 
BY 

SCOTT, FORESMAN AND COMPANY 



JUL 26 1919 

©CI.A530348 



» /U-<) 



I 



PREFACE 

With or without a League of Nations, the Great War 
has forced us all to think more internationally. It has 
been a world war in the number and distribution of its 
participants, and it has left us an inescapable legacy of 
world problems. 

To the schools comes the task of preparing the rising 
generation to play its part worthily in the new conditions. 
Without lessening the emphasis on our national ideals 
and duties, and the instruction which makes for sturdy 
Americanism, the boys and girls who will be the citizens 
of the future must be led to see the Old World background 
against which our New World problems are projected. To 
accomplish this there is no means so good as a brief but 
comprehensive survey of European history, from the 
earliest dawn of civilization to the present time. 

The present book is a version and adaptation of an 
earlier one, first published in 1912, under the title The 
Story of Europe, and planned along the lines recommended 
by the Committee of Eight for the Sixth Grade. The new 
book differs from the old in part by the addition, at the 
beginning, of a chapter dealing with man's earliest history, 
and of three chapters at the end surveying the course 
of the last three centuries, culminating in the Great W^ar. 
It is hoped that in the new form and under the new needs 
the book may prove as successful as formerly in meeting 
the old needs. 

For the convenience of schools which may wish to deal 
with the stories of Greece and Rome in an earlier grade, 
the separation of parts is clearly marked in the table of 
contents. S. B. H. 

May, 1919. 

vii 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Preface vii 

To THE Teacher xv 

PART ONE— ANCIENT HISTORY 

I. The Dawn of History 1 

THE GREEKS AND WHAT WE LEARNED FROM THEM 

II. Ancient Greece 13 

III. Achilles and the War Against Troy 21 

IV. Sparta and Athens 25 

V. The War of the Greeks and the Persians 29 

VI. The Battles of Thermopylae and Salamis 33 

VII. Athens Under Pericles 39 

VIII. Socrates the Philosopher 44 

IX. Alexander the Great 47 

X. The Spread of Greek Culture 53 



THE ROMANS — WHAT THEY LEARNED FROM THE 
GREEKS AND WHAT THEY HAVE TAUGHT US 

XI. Early Days of Rome 57 

XII. The Story of Cincinnatus 63 

XIII. Rome's Wars with Carthage 67 

XIV. Rome and the Mediterranean World 75 

XV. The Romans in the West 81 

XVI. Rome the Capital of an Empire 91 

XVII. Rome and Christianity 104 

ix 



CONTENTS 
PART TWO— THE MIDDLE AGES 

THE TEUTONS THE HEIRS OF THE ROMANS — LIFE 
OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

PAGE 

XVIII. The Ancient Teutons 112 

XIX. The Teutons Invade the Empire 120 

XX. Charlemagne 131 

XXI. The Founding of England 142 

XXII. King Alfred and the Northmen 151 

XXIII. The Normans Conquer England 160 

XXIV. King John and the Great Charter 168 

XXV. The Rise of Parliament 174 

XXVI. Life in the Castles 180 

XXVII. Life in the Villages 193 

XXVIII. Life in the Medieval Towns 202 

XXIX. The Church in the Middle Ages 213 



PILGRIMAGES, CRUSADES, AND COMMERCE 

XXX. Pilgrimages of the Middle Ages 225 

XXXI. The First Crusade 231 

XXXII. The Crusade of Richard the Lion-Hearted 240 

XXXIII. Results of THE Crusades 249 



PART THREE— MODERN HISTORY 

THE DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN WORLD 

XXXIV. The Beginnings of Discovery 257 

XXXV. The Voyages of Columbus 265 

XXXVI. The Successors to Columbus 276 

XXXVII. Spanish Conquests in America 283 



CONTENTS xi 

EUROPEAN RIVALRIES WHICH INFLUENCED AMERICAN 
CONQUEST AND COLONIZATION 

PAGB 

XXXVIII. England in the Days of Elizabeth 294 

XXXIX. France in the New World 307 

XL. The Dutch Revolt Against Spain 314 

XLI. England Defeats the Spanish Armada 321 

XLII. English Colonization Begun 330 



THE GROWTH OF FREEDOM 

XLIII. The Rise op Constitutional Govermnent 339 

XLIV. The French Revolution and the Rise of Democracy. . 345 

XLV. World Progress and the Great War 352 

Chronological Outline 363 

Index (with Pronunciation of Proper Names) . 371 



LIST OF MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS 



MAPS 



PAGE 

Egyptian Empire, facing 7 

Assyrian Empire, facing 7 

Greece 12 

Alexander's Empire 50 

Italy 58 

Roman Empire 92 

Charlemagne's Empire 136 



PA6K 

Old English Kingdoms 144 

The Crusades 235 

Commerce of- the Middle Ages, 

facing 255 

Voyages and Discoveries 272 

The Spa,ni8h Armada 324 

The Countries at War 358 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



A Vassal Doing Homage to 

His Lord Frontispiece 

Hand-Ax and Spear Head of 

Flint 3 

Ax Fastened in Handle 3 

Name Cleopatra in Egyptian 

Writing 4 

Egyptian Sphinx and Great 

Pyramid 5 

Interior of Egyptian Temple . . 6 

Examples of Cuneiform Writing 7 
Stone Slab Showing Assyrian 

Lion Hunt 8 

Portrait of Girl 10 

Bust of Zeus (Jupiter) 15 

Statue of Apollo 16 

Bust of Aphrodite (Venus) ... 18 
A Greek W^arship of the 5th 

Century B.c 20 

Athens As It Is Now 27 

Return of the Victors from 

Salamis 36 

The Acropolis of Athens 40 

Stj^tue of Athena 42 

Statue of Alexander the Great 48 

Alexander Defeatingthe Persians 51 
A Temple on tlie Acropolis 

(The Erechtheum) 54 



Attendants upon a King or 

Consul 60 

Roman Plow 64 

A Roman Soldier 65 

Roman Standard Bearer 66 

Hannibal Crossing the Rhone 

River 69 

The Roman Forum (Restora- 
tion) 76 

Ruins of a Roman Aqueduct.. 77 

A Roman Road Across a Marsh 78 

View of the Capitol 79 

Roman Chariot Race 82 

Bust of Julius Caesar 83 

Gladiators Fighting 84 

Part of the Roman Wall in 

Britain 89 

Interior of a House at Pompeii 97 

Lamp and Stand 98 

Spoon and Drinking Bowl from 

Pompeii 99 

Drawing on the Outer Wall of 

a House in Pompeii 99 

Roman Books and Writing Ma- 
terials 101 

Toga (Front) 102 

Toga (Back) 102 

Persecution of the Christians. 106 



xu 



LIST OF MAPS AND ILLUSTKATIONS 



xm 



PAGE 

A Bishop on His Throne 109 

A Monk 110 

An Old Teutonic Village 113 

Woden 118 

Thor 119 

A Hun Warrior 122 

Goths on the March 124 

Franks Crossing the Rhine... 126 

Arms of Franks 127 

A Frankish Chief 128 

Baptism of Clovis 129 

Statue of Charlemagne 132 

Charlemagne 138 

Royal Palace of Charlemagne's 

Time 140 

An Early English Church 148 

Remains of a Viking Ship 

Found in Sweden 152 

An English King 155 

Woman's Costume 155 

Gold Jewel of Alfred 156 

Old English Horn Lantern... 157 

House of an English Noble... 158 
William of Normandy Landing 

in England 161 

William the Conqueror 162 

Death of Harold 163 

A Norman Castle in England. . 165 

John Granting the Charter. . . . 170 

Portion of the Great Charter.. 172 

Seal of Edward 1 177 

A Castle of the Eleventh Cen- 
tury 182 

The "Saucy Castle" of Richard 

the Lion- Hearted 185 

Falconry 188 

Arming the Knight 190 

A Great Feast in the 12th Cen- 
tury 191 

Plan of Village 194 

Peasants Plowing 196 

Peasants Breaking Clods with 

Mallets 196 

Harrowing 197 

Men and Women Reaping 197 

Threshing 198 

A Medieval Town 203 



PAGE 

Attack upon a City in the 

Later Middle Ages 206 

A Medieval Shop 208 

Canterbury Cathedral 210 

A Fair in the 13th Century... 211 

Cologne Cathedral 214 

Head of a Bishop's Staff 215 

A Medieval Monastery 217 

A French Cloister 218 

Monk in Scriptorium 220 

Illuminated Initial 222 

A Pilgrim 226 

Canterbury Pilgrims 227 

A Crusader 232 

Crusaders on the March 234 

A Machine for Hurling Stones 238 

Knight Templar 241 

Richard the Lion-Hearted 243 

Shield of Richard 244 

Movable Tower 245 

Armor of the Time of King 

Richard 246 

Venetian Merchant Ship 251 

The Grand Canal of Venice... 253 

Plaza of St. Mark, Venice.... 254 

Kublai Khan 258 

Early Printers 261 

Toscanelli's Map 266 

Departure of Columbus 269 

The Cross-Staff 270 

The Ships of Columbus 271 

Balboa Taking Possession of 

the Pacific 279 

Ferdinand Magellan 281 

Aztec Calendar Stone 283 

Fair God of the Mexicans.... 284 

Indian Pueblo 289 

Spanish Mission of Santa Bar- 
bara 292- 

Queen Elizabeth 297 

London Bridge in the Days of 

Elizabeth 298 

Gold Coin of Elizabeth 301 

Drake's Ship 303 

Traveling in State in Eliza- 
beth's Time 305 

Bayard 308 



XIV 



LIST OF MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS 



PAGE 

French Battle in Italy 309 

Scene in Holland 315 

William the Silent 317 

Battle Between the English 

Fleet and the Armada 326 

An Indian Warrior 331 

Indian Village 332 

Charles I 341 

Oliver Cromwell 342 

The Parliament Building Today 343 



PAGE 

The Bastille 346 

The Eerign of Terror 348 

Guillotine 349 

Napoleon at Waterloo 350 

Hand Spinning Wheel 353 

A Spinning Factory 354 

The First Locomotive........ 355 

Interior View of the House of 

Commons 356 

The Price of War 360 



TO THE TEACHER i 

The year's work presented in this book is designed to give 
to the child in tangible, concrete form the Old World back- 
ground of American history; to give some definite impres- 
sions of the civilizations of ancient and modern Europe, and 
of the events leading to the transplanting of those civiliza- 
tions to America. The introductory lessons should so 
utilize the child's previous experience and knowledge as to 
make vivid the realization that the beginnings of the world 
he sees about him are to be sought far in the past and in 
distant lands. The method of procedure outlined below 
can be modified indefinitely to meet the special views of the 
teacher or the requirements and ability of the class. 

It is suggested that the first chapter be not assigned for 
study and recitation, but be read in class and made the basis 
for discussion. It is well to develop first the thought sug- 
gested in the opening paragraph. Ask whether any of 
the class were born elsewhere than in this country ; whether 
any have parents, grandparents, relatives, or friends, who 
came to America from other lands. Make a list of the lands 
from which they came, and locate them on a map. With 
most classes these questions will bring out the fact that 
America has been settled for the most part by people who 
came from Europe. 

To show how these people have come, ask the children 
to find out and tell to the class the experiences of emigrants 
whom they know personally, in coming to America. Show 
a picture of an ocean steamship (easily obtainable from 
transportation companies) and describe its arrangements. 
Tell how emigrants are now admitted, for example, at Ellis 
Island in New York harbor ; and how they reach their final 

XV 



XVI 



OLD WOELD BACKGEOUND 






c 

4 



- Rom* founded Oegendary dcteX 



8b 



-1} 



Greek wu with Peniau. 

Atheiu uoder Pericles. 

— Socrates put to death. 

— Rome burned by the Gauls. 

— Death of Aleiahder. 



Roman wars with Carthage. 

— Greece and Macedonia coni^ 
under Roman rule. 



- Julius Caesar conquers Gaul. 



. Augnstus, Emperor 



- Persecution of Cbristiwi* 
tut Nero. 



Constantine the Great make* 
the Empire Christian. 



- Goths sack Borne. 

' Angles and Saxons conquer Britain. 
. End of Western Emp|fe. 
Clovia king of the Franks. 



Mohammed founds new religion 

TIME CHART 

To be drawn on blackboard 

or made by pupils. 



destinations, using, if possible, 
illustrations of local interest. Con- 
trast the experiences of an emi- 
grant today with those of the Pil- 
grims in the Mayflower. 

Next try to give the pupils some 
idea of the extent of time which 
separates us from the beginnings 
of history. Work back from the 
present by generations, then by 
centuries. Three generations 
(grandfather, father, and son) 
cover approximately a century. 
But the beginning of our story 
goes back more than forty cen- 
turies. To illustrate this, put upon 
the blackboard a vertical mark to 
represent the time of Christ's 
birth. Draw to the left of this a 
line divided into at least twenty 
units, to represent time B.C.; and 
to the right twenty units to repre- 
sent time A.D. Each unit represents 
a century, and they may be num- 
bered underneath. Make a cross 
in the nineteenth century for the 
American Civil War, another in 
the eighteenth century for the 
American Revolution, and another 
in the fifteenth century for the 
discovery of America by Columbus. 
Then put a mark in the twelfth 
century B.C. for the Greek war 
with Troy, and another at 2100 



TO THE TEACHEE xvii 

B.C. for the reign of Hammurabi. See that the pupils 
understand that even this is not the beginning of history. 

Use a map to show that most of the peoples known in the 
days of ancient Greece and Rome lived about the Mediter- 
ranean Sea. Emphasize the fact that the American conti- 
nents were unknown. Make clear some of the ancient 
notions about the shape of the earth as expressed in the 
terms "Ultima Thule" and the "Antipodes," and bring out 
the idea that knowledge of the earth was so limited because 
ancient peoples lacked the means of communication we now 
have. 

Next the teacher should, by questioning, make out a list 
of the most important modern inventions which have 
increased our facilities for communication, such as the 
steamship, the locomotive, the telegraph, and the telephone. 
Attention should then be called to some inventions made 
before Columbus discovered America, especially the com- 
pass and printing with movable metal types. Show the 
effect of the compass on maritime enterprise, and the impor- 
tance of the printing-press in the spread of knowledge and 
culture. 

This will lead the class back to still older inventions, like 
that of the alphabet. Explain simply that history began 
when men first made written records of their deeds. This 
was in Egypt probably seven thousand years ago, and the 
first writing was merely crude pictures of material objects, 
carved upon the stone walls of temples and monuments. 
(Show pictures of Egyptian hieroglyphics.) A great 
advance in simplicity and expressiveness was made when 
the later Egyptians and Babylonians made signs or sym- 
bols to represent syllables instead of objects. But it was 
the Phoenicians, the neighbors and kinsmen of the Hebrews 
in Palestine, who completed the work of the Babylonians 
and Egyptians by adapting a true phonetic alphabet com- 



xviii OLD WORLD BACKGEOUND 

posed of simple symbols or letters to represent the ele- 
mentary sounds of the human voice. The Phoenicians 
were a commercial and maritime people, and through their 
trade came in contact with the Greeks, who borrowed their 
alphabet. The English alphabet is based upon the Roman, 
which was developed from the Greek. A comparison of a 
few English, Latin, and Greek capital letters will be inter- 
esting, and will show the changes wrought by centuries of 
usage. 

Four or five days given to introductory work of this sort 
should be sufficient to prepare the class to take up the study 
of the text with interest and with some sense of historical 
perspective. The teacher should guard against the tempta- 
tion to spend an undue proportion of time on Part One, 
since the purpose of the section on ancient history is merely 
to give a correct setting for the presentation of the develop- 
ment of modern civilization. In those schools in which 
the stories of Greece and Rome are read in an earlier 
grade, Part One may be made the basis for a rapid review. 

The analyses given at the beginning of each chapter in 
the text have been prepared with a view to assisting the 
pupils to get at the points of real importance. The topics 
indicated at the close of each chapter are designed to sug- 
gest new angles from which material given in the chapter 
may be viewed, and to encourage further reading. A 
stimulus to the interest, which may lead to reading and 
inquiry, should always be one of the aims of history teach- 
ing, even the most elementary. 

It is urged that teachers make sure that pupils form cor- 
rect concepts of unfamiliar words as they occur in the text, 
and of such abstractions as "civilization," "government," 
etc. Unless care is taken, children are likely to form curious 
misconceptions even of terms which offer no difficulties to 
the adult mind. By attention to this matter the teacher 



TO THE TEACHEK xix 

can develop in the children under her charge an enlarged 
and accurate vocabulary. And what is still more impor- 
tant, she can help to establish in them the habit of precise 
interpretation of the printed page. This habit is an anti- 
dote to loose thinking and one of the necessary bases of 
sound education. 

Pupils should be required to study the pictures as well 
as the text. Much additional information may thus be 
obtained, while at the same time the child's powers of 
observation are sharpened. Special attention should be 
given to the correct pronunciation of proper names. In the 
index to the book will be found all the proper names used, 
with the correct diacritical marks. It is urged also that 
constant use be made both of wall maps and of maps in the 
text, in order that the pupils' sense of place may be devel- 
oped. It may be further suggested that the working out 
by the children themselves of such a time chart as is indi- 
cated above will be found eminently worth while. This 
may most easily be made on strips of paper six or eight 
inches broad and as long as necessary. Wrapping paper 
may be obtained from a storekeeper's roll and cut to the 
proper width; or sheets of letter paper may be pasted 
together, end to end. Four inches may be allotted to a 
century; and by writing on both sides of the central lines, 
space may be found for putting in most of the important 
events mentioned in this text. The cut on page xii indi- 
cates roughly the sort of chart contemplated. The sheet 
may be made manageable by rolling it, or better perhaps 
by folding it (alternately over and back, after the fashion 
of a set of panoramic views) on the lines separating the 
century divisions. 

The last three chapters are designed to give in barest out- 
line a survey of the great movements of European history 
since the beginning of the English colonization of America. 



XX OLD WOELD BACKGEOUND 

It is suggested that these chapters be dealt with in the same 
way as the opening chapter, and merely be read in class 
and made the basis of discussion with the books open on 
the desk. 

If these various suggestions are followed, it is believed 
that neither pupils nor teacher will experience too serious 
difl&culty with European history even in the sixth grade. 
And by such a study the pupils' minds will be enriched, and 
be better prepared to grapple understanding^ with the 
American history and its world relations as it is presented 
in the last two years of the common-school course. 



PART ONE— ANCIENT HISTORY 

CHAPTER I 
THE DAWN OF HISTORY 

Points to Be Noted 

Why Americans should study the history of Europe. 

Man's long development before becoming civilized ; use of fire, stone 

knives and axes, bows and arrows, pottery making, agriculture, 

domestic animals, spinning and weaving, metal working. The 

invention of writing ends the Pi-ehistoric Age. 
The most ancient civilized peoples inhabited the "fertile crescent" 

which included the valley of the Nile, a belt north of the Arabian 

desert, and the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. 
The Egyptians were a civilized people 3000 years before the birth of 

Christ. Character of their civilization. 
Beginnings of Babylonian and Assyrian civilization at about the same 

date; characteristics. The Persians succeed the Assyrians and 

Chaldeans. 
The Hebrews and what they contributed. The Phoenicians. The 

Aegean civilization, the earliest in Europe and the forerunner of 

that of the Greeks. 

1. Our Relation to Europe. If you had gone to the harbor 
of New York a few years ago and watched one of the great 
ocean steamships unload its passengers, among them you 
would probably have seen some hundreds of men, women, 
and little children who had come across the Atlantic Ocean 
to find new homes in the United States. Where did these 
people come from? You would probably have found that 
most of them were from some part of the continent or 
islands of Europe ; and from their language, their dress, and 
their manners you would at once have guessed that their 
countries must be different in many ways from America. 
There are several millions of people in our country today 
who were born in Europe and came to the United States 

1 



2 OLD WORLD BACKGEOUND 

in this way. Indeed, almost every one of us would find, if 
we should inquire, that either our parents or grandparents, 
or at least their parents or grandparents, were emigrants 
from the Old World to the New. If you inquired still 
further, you would find that most of the things which make 
us a civilized people — such as our religion, the subjects which 
we study in schools, our ways of living, and the great inven- 
tions of gunpowder, the compass, and printing — all these 
were brought to our country by emigrants from Europe. 
So, if we wish to understand the history and institutions 
of our own country, we must first learn something of the 
history and institutions of the lands from which our fore- 
fathers came. And to complete the story we need to- carry 
it even farther back, to the valley of the Nile in Africa, 
and to the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates in Western 
Asia, where the earliest recorded civilizations arose. 

2. Beginnings of Civilization. Perhaps you may ask, "What 
does civilization mean?" It means not merely improvements 
in food, clothing, housing, and the like. It means also the 
growth of better governments, and more reasonable law, 
so that men may live and work in peace and safety. Even 
more, it means the cultivation and ennobling of men's minds 
and spirits, through science, art, literature, and religion. 
Civilization is opposed to savagery and barbarism, and the 
step which separates the highest stage of barbarism from 
the lowest stage of civilization is the invention of writing. 

If we go back to a time ten thousand years ago, we find 
the most advanced tribes of men living in settled villages, 
scattered here and there in favorable localities over Western 
Asia, Northern Africa, and Southern Europe. In some 
places their homes were wooden huts, set on piles driven 
into lake bottoms and connected with the shore by wooden 
bridges. Elsewhere they dwelt in houses of interwoven 
branches smeared with clay. In still other localities they 



THE DAWN OF HISTORY 





lived in groups of natural caves, which afforded them shelter 
from the elements and protection from wild animals. 

Already these early men had 
come a long, long way on the road 
to civilization. During thousands 
and thousands of years their fore- 
runners had slowly advanced from 
complete savagery to the bar- 
barian stage. Fire was the first 

_ great invention, making it pos- 

^'^''spE'iR''SEAD'''''' sible to use for food many sub- 
stances which without cooking are unwholesome. Then 
came knives and axes oj roughly chipped stone, which 
formed man's first weapons and first tools; and slowly these 
came to be made more smooth and serviceable. The bow 
and arrow was an improvement on the stone or horn-tipped 
spear; and the art of making pottery, out of clay baked in 
the fire, supplied vessels in which food could be boiled or 
baked, and liquids and grains stored for future use. 

Gradually, as the centuries passed, man took further steps 
which raised him still higher in the scale. The seeds of wild 
grasses and grains, which were collected 
for food, were sown and cultivated, and 
so agriculture began. The taming of the 
dog, sheep, ox, camel, and other domestic 
animals gave him a more certain food 
supply as well as furnished him with pow- 
erful aids in his wars and his work. The 
inventions of spinning ' and weaving 
enabled him to supplement his rude skin garments with 
better ones made from cloth of various kinds. Then came 
the great discovery of metal working— ^rst copper, then 
bronze, and then iron— giving him tools and weapons of 
ever increasing excellence. 




AX FASTENED 
IN HANDLE 



4 OLD WOELD BACKGROUND 

Finally man invented writing — first mere picture records; 
then signs which stood for words and syllables; and then 
at last, after several centuries, alphabetic writing. In this, 
signs are used to represent individual sounds, so that a 

NAME CLEOPATRA IN EGYPTIAN WRITING 

small number of characters can be made to represent almost 
any word or idea which man has to express. With the 
invention of writing it became possible to carry on great 
enterprises, to rule vast empires, and to hand down to dis- 
tant ages the knowledge of a people's exploits. So after 
some fifty thousand years of slow advance in what we call 
the prehistoric ages, man came out of the darkness into 
the full light of history. 

3. The Ancient Egyptians. The warm and fertile valley of 
the river Nile in Egypt, and that of the Tigris and Euphra- 
tes in Western Asia, were especially favorable for man's 
early development. Accordingly a high degree of civiliza- 
tion arose, and great empires flourished there, while else- 
where men still remained savage or barbarian. Connecting 
these river valleys, moreover, was a belt of fertile land which 
stretched, in the shape of a crescent, north of the Arabian 
desert and along the Mediterranean Sea. This region, too, 
was favorable for early man, and here arose the civiliza- 
tions of the ancient Hebrews and Phoenicians. 

Nearly 3000 years before Christ was born, the Egyptians 
had already become a civilized- people. Even that early 
they practiced agriculture with the aid of irrigation in the 
dry season, knew the use of metals and of writing, had 
orderly governments and an elaborate religion, and built 
vast monuments such as the pyramids, sphinxes, and tem- 
ples, the ruins of which still draw travelers to Egypt. They 



THE DAWN OF HISTORY 




EGYPTIAN SPHINX AND GREAT PYRAMID 



6 



OLD WORLD BACKGEOUND 



built ships and carried their beautiful vases, cloths, and 
metal wares to the neighboring lands of the Mediterranean. 

They had also begun to 
write books, on paper 
made from the split 
reeds of the papyrus 
plant, and they had 
lofty ideas — not always 
followed in practice — 
of right and justice. 
One of the old Egyptian 
nobles caused this in- 
scription to be placed in 
his tomb, where it can 
be read to this day: 

"There was no widow 
whom I oppressed ; there 
was no peasant whom 
I evicted; there was 

INTERIOR OF EGYPTIAN TEMPLE nO shcphcrd whom I 

expelled. There was none wretched in my community, there 
was none hungry in my time. When years of famine came, 
I plowed all the fields of the estate, preserving its people 
alive and furnishing them food so that there was none 
hungry therein." 

For about four hundred years (1580 to 1150 b.c.) the rulers 
of ancient Egypt were able to extend their rule over the 
neighboring lands of Palestine, Phoenicia, and Syria. Then 
came a decline, due to the rise to power of new peoples 
abroad and the growth of weakness at home. But Egypt 
continued to be a powerful country down to the days of 
ancient Greece and Rome, and greatly influenced those 
countries as well as the people of later times. 






From Breasted s Ancient History Charts, permission of Uenoyer-Geppert Co. 



THE DAWN OF HISTOEY 



MEANING 


Outline 
Charac- 
ter 
4500 B.C 


Cunei- 
form 

25ooac 


Assyrian 
700RC. 


Baby- 
lonian 

500 ac 


The Sun 


<> 


CV 


iX 


■<T 


God, 
heaven 


^ 


•* 


«f- 


HP 


Mountain 


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4. Babylonians, Assyrians, and Persians. At the other end 
of the fertile crescent, in the valley of the Tigris and 
Euphrates rivers, civilization arose almost as early and 
shone as splendidly as it did in ancient Egypt. In Baby- 
lonia, the southern part of the valley, cities of mud-brick 
huts arose as early as 3000 years B.C., and extensive systems 

of irrigation canals were con- 
structed to aid in cultivating 
the fields of barley and wheat. 
There also a system of writ- 
ing arose, in queer wedge- 
shaped characters on clay 
tablets, which we call "cunei- 
form" writing. It looked very 
different from the "hierogly- 
phics" of the Egyptians, but 
like the latter it grew out of 
picture writing. 
About the year 2100 B.C., a great Babylonian king named 
Hammurabi prepared a code of laws, which he caused to 
be engraved on a stone pillar which has come down to us 
across the ages. It is the oldest code of laws which still 
survives from any people. It shows a well ordered land, 
in which agriculture, manufactures, and trade were prac- 
ticed, and which was ruled over by a strong but despotic 
government. 

The Assyrians dwelt in the northern part of the valley 
and at first were a ruder and more backward people. But 
they were also more warlike, and after many centuries of 
struggle they conquered the Babylonians and established 
their rule over the whole valley. They extended their 
empire to the Mediterranean, and for a time (about the 
year 700 B.C.) they even ruled Egypt. 
There were several reasons why the Assyrians were able 



EXAMPLES OP CUNEIFORM 
WRITING 



OLD WOELD BACKGEOUND 



to make such wide conquests. They were the first people 
to have large armies equipped with weapons of iron. These 
new arms were as much superior to the old weapons of 
bronze as the bronze weapons were to the stone weapons 
of the still earlier days. In addition the Assjrians organized 
their state for war as a regular business, and so had an 
unfair advantage over the more peace-loving peoples. 

The Assyrians adorned their capital, Nineveh, with mag- 
nificent temples and palaces, built with the labor of count- 
less slaves taken in their wars. Assyrian art thus became 




STONE SLAB SHOWING ASSYRIAN LION HUNT 

the first great art of Asia which was worthy of being com- 
pared with that of Egypt. But the Assyrians were a hard, 
cruel race, and wherever they went they left a trail of 
blood and ruin. When at last their capital was destroyed 
and the power passed to a new people, the Chaldeans, the 
Hebrew prophet Nahum exulted in these words: 

"Woe to the bloody city! It is all full of lies and rob- 
bery ; and the prey departeth not. All they that look upon 
them shall flee from them and say, 'Nineveh is laid waste! 
Who will bemoan her?' " 

We need not say more of the Assyrians or the Chaldeans, 
for both alike were soon swallowed up in the empire of the 
Persians. This was founded by Cyrus the Great, between 



THE DAWN OF HISTORY 9 

the years 549 and 529 B.C. The Persian Empire was the 
third of the great empires of these ancient days. It was 
also the greatest in extent, for it included Egypt, Babylonia, 
and Assyria, and stretched from the borders of India to the 
shores of Greece. We shall meet with the Persians again 
when we come to the history of Greece. Now we need 
only to note that their energies, like those of the Assyrians, 
were devoted mainly to conquests, and that further progress 
of civilization was not possible along those lines. 

5. Hebrews and Phoenicians. There were two other 
peoples of western Asia, however, who did make important 
contributions to the civilization which Europe received 
from Asia, and which we have received from Europe. 
The first of these were the Hebrews, or Jews, whose 
story is told in the Old Testament. They were orig- 
inally dwellers in the Arabian desert, and slowly drifted 
into Palestine from about 1400 B.C. to 1200 B.C. Another 
group of their tribes had been slaves in Eg3T)t, and these 
people were led out of bondage by their great leader Moses. 
The northern of the two kingdoms which they established 
in Palestine was destroyed, in the year 722 b.c, by the 
Assyrians. The southern kingdom, called Israel, was con- 
quered by the Chaldean king Nebuchadnezzar (586 B.C.) 
who destroyed their holy city Jerusalem and carried away 
the people to captivity in Babylonia. After seventy years, 
however, Cyrus the Persian set them free and sent them 
back to Palestine. There they rebuilt Jerusalem and con- 
tinued to dwell until the days of the Roman Empire. 

The great contribution of the Hebrews to civilization 
was in the field of religion. They were the first people to 
teach that there is but one true God, and that he exercises a 
fatherly care over his children. This teaching prepared the 
way for that of Christ, which spread far beyond the land 
of the Jews. 



10 OLD WOELD BACKGEOUND 

The Phoenicians were a commercial and seafaring people 
who dwelt in the northern part of Palestine. Their great 
contribution was the taking up and simplifying of the 
alphabet, which was originally invented by the Egyptians, 
and spreading the knowledge of it east and west to all the 
ancient world. They also helped to carry the wares and 
civilization of Egypt and Assyria throughout the Mediter- 
ranean lands. 

6. Aegean Civilization. As early as the year 3000 B.C. the 
influence of Egypt had begun to make itself felt in the 
islands of the Eastern Mediterranean. Before many cen- 
turies had passed, a flourishing civilization, the first in 
European lands, had sprung up in the islands of the Aegean 
Sea and the surrounding mainland. The center of this 
civilization was in the island of Crete; but important out- 
posts existed in the city of Troy 
in the northwestern corner of 
Asia Minor, and at Mycenae and 
in other places in what was later 
to become the mainland of 
Greece. This was some centuries 
before the Greeks had come down 
from their northern homes, in 
PORTRAIT OF GIRL which wc find their earliest 

From Island of Crete, » i • • 1/^1 

3500 years old. traces. At this timc the Greeks 

were still barbarians, and indeed it was their coming which 
overthrew this "Aegean" or "Mycenaean" civilization. 

Egyptians, Assyrians, Aegeans, and Phoenicians all had 
a share in handing on to the Greeks the beginnings of civili- 
zation. But it was the genius which the Greeks themselves 
possessed that enabled them to profit by these teachings, 
and to develop that high civilization of their own which 
lies at the beginning of European history. 




THE DAWN OF HISTORY 11 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Why was man's progress so slow in early times as compared with 

later times'? 

2. What reasons can you see for the early rise of civilization in the 

valleys of the Nile and of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers? 

3. Make a list of some of the things wliich the Egyptians contributed 

to make the world civilized. Do the same for the Babylonians, 
Hebrews, Phoenicians. 

4. How do you suppose the Egyptians and Assyrians built such huge 

monuments of stone without the aid of steam engines and other 
machineiy such as we have? 

5. How long has it been from the time of King Hammurabi to the 

present time? 

6. What geographical reason is there to explain why Greece was the 

first land of Europe to receive civilization from Asia? 



12 



OLD WORLD BACKGEOUXD 




CHAPTER II 
ANCIENT GREECE 

Points to Be Noted 

Size and coast line of Europe; its three southern peninsulas. 

The location and natural beauty of Greece; character of the ancient 

Greek people. 
What the Greeks thought about the world; their gods, and how they 
worshiped them. 

7. Geography of Europe. By looking at the map of the 
world in your geography, you will see that Europe is the 
smallest of the five great continents. It appears to be 
scarcely more than a great peninsula jutting out from Asia, 
and yet its people have played by far the largest part in the 
history of the world. The close connection with Asia 
enabled them to learn from the people of that continent 
the first steps in civilization. The climate, situation, and 
geographical structure of Europe were all favorable for 
developing that civilization still further. 

You will also see from the map that the coast of Europe 
is very irregular in outline. Many bays and seas run far 
into the land, forming numerous peninsulas. This irregular 
outline was an important factor in developing civilization, 
for on these sheltered seas and bays, early men could 
venture forth in safety, to catch fish and to carry on trade 
with neighboring lands. 

8. The Mediterranean Lands. To the south of Europe, 
separating it from Africa, is the largest of the inclosed seas, 
which we call the Mediterranean. For two thousand years 
before the time of Columbus, this sea was the center of 
the civilized world. In the lands washed by its waters 

13 



14 OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 

European civilization was first developed, and there alone, 
for many centuries, it flourished. By looking again at the 
map, you will see that there are three peninsulas which jut 
out from Europe into the Mediterranean Sea. If we were 
to sail directly east from New York, we should, after some 
time, touch the shores of the westernmost of these — Spain. 
Continuing our journey, we should come to Italy. Finally, 
we should reach Greece — the smallest and most irregular 
in outline of the three. It is also the nearest of the three 
to Asia, the original home of civilization. 

9. Greece and the Greeks. The story of Europe really 
begins with the peninsula of Greece. That little country 
is beautiful in many ways. Its sky is bluer than our own. 
Its winters are short and mild, and its summers long and 
pleasant. In whatever direction you look, you will see the 
top of some tall mountain reaching toward the sky. Between 
the mountains lie beautiful deep valleys and small sunny 
plains, while almost all around the land stretches a bright 
blue sea. 

The people who live in that country now are not very 
different from ourselves. But in the long-ago days this 
was not so. There were then no newspapers, no railroads, 
no telegraph lines, such as we are used to. The people 
were obliged to live very simply, for they lacked a great 
many things which we think that we could not possibly 
do without. 

But although the old Greeks did not know anything of 
electric lights and steam engines, and ate the plainest food, 
and wore the simplest of woolen clothing, they were not 
at all a rude or a savage people. In their cities were fine 
buildings, and pictures, and statues so beautiful that we 
can never hope to make better ones. And they had lovely 
thoughts and fancies, too, concerning all the world about 
them. 



ANCIEXT GREECE 



15 



10. The Gods of the Greeks. When they saw the sun rise, 
they thought that it was a god, who came up out of the sea 
in the east, and then journeyed across the sky toward the 
west. When they saw the grass and flowers springing out 
of the dark cold earth, they fancied that there must be 
another god who made them grow. They imagined that 
the lightning was the 
weapon of a mighty god 
who ruled the earth and 
sky. And so they ex- 
plained everything about 
them by thinking that 
it was caused by some 
being much greater than 
themselves. Sometimes 
they even imagined that 
they could see their gods 
in the clouds or in the 
waves of the sea, and 
sometimes they thought 
that they heard them 
speaking in the rustling 
leaves of the forest. 

The Greeks believed 
that the rule over the 
whole world was divided 
among three great gods, 

who were brothers. The first . and greatest of these was 
Zeus (called Jupiter by the Romans), who ruled the heavens 
and the earth ; it was he who sent the lightning to destroy 
those who disobeyed him. The second god, who ruled the 
ocean, the rivers, and the brooks, was named Poseidon 
(Neptune). The third, who was called Hades, was the god 




BUST OF ZEUS (JUPITER) 



16 



OLD WORLD BACKGEOUND 




ANCIENT GEEECE 17 

of the underworld; this was the dark region beneath the 
surface of the earth where dwelt the spirits of the dead. 
Besides these three, there were many other gods, most of 
whom were their children or were related to them in some- 
way. 

11. Apollo and the Oracle at Delphi. Apollo, who was one 
of the sons of Zeus, was the most beautiful of all the gods. 
He was the sun-god, arid brought warmth and light to men. 
The Greeks would never begin anything important without 
first seeking Apollo's advice. This they obtained from the 
priestess who dwelt at Delphi in his temple there. It was 
her duty to tell the people who came to the temple the 
answers which the god; gave to their questions. She would 
place herself over a crack in the earth out of which arose 
a thin stream of gases; By breathing these she was made 
light-headed for the moment, and then she was supposed 
to be able to tell the answer which Apollo gave. These 
answers were called "oracles," and though they were often 
very hard to understand, the Greeks thought a great deal 
of them. 

12. Greek Goddesses. As Apollo was the most beautiful of 
all the gods, so Aphrodite (or Venus) was the most lovely 
of the goddesses. She was also the gentlest and the kindest 
among them. She was called the goddess of love and 
beauty, and the Greeks prayed to her to cause the persons 
whom they cared for to love them in return. The queen of 
the gods was the tall and stately Hera (Juno), the wife of 
Zeus. But the goddess whom the Greeks loved best was 
Athena (called Minerva by the Romans). She was the 
daughter of Zeus, — indeed, they believed that she had 
sprung full-grown from his head. They thought of her 
especially as the goddess of wisdom and learning; for she 
watched over the work of men, and helped them to invent 
better ways of doing things. 



18 



OLD WOELD BACKGROUND 




13. Character of the Gods. The gods and goddesses were 
always thought of as larger than men and more beautiful 

in face and figure. 
They remained al- 
ways the same, nev- 
er growing older or 
dying, as men and 
women do. They 
were not always 
good, but would 
often quarrel among 
themselves and 
sometimes do very 
cruel things. In- 
deed, they were 
very much like the 
men and women 
BUST oi-^ APHRODITE (VENUS) who imagined them, 

except that they could do wonderful things which would 
have been impossible for the people of the earth. 

14. Lesser Spirits. The Greeks believed that besides the 
greater gods there were less powerful spirits all about them. 
They thought that the trees had guardian spirits who cared 
for them. Lovely maidens, called nymphs, were supposed 
to live in the springs and brooks, and even in the bright 
waves of the sea. There were spirits, too, who lived in the 
woods, and wandered among the trees day and night; and 
still others who had their homes upon the mountain sides. 
The Greeks made up many beautiful stories about all of 
these gods and spirits, and were never tired of telling and 
retelling them. 

15. How the Gods Were Worshiped. The Greeks loved 
their gods, but feared them a little also. The people tried 
to gain the good- will of the gods by building beautiful 



ANCIEXT GREECE 19 

marble temples in their honor, as we build churches, and 
by offering wine and meat and precious things to them. 
The Greeks also held great festivals in their honor. The 
greatest festival was the one which was held in honor of 
Zeus at a place called Oh^mpia. Every four years mes- 
sengers would go about from town to town to give notice 
of this. Then all wars would cease, and people from all 
over Greece would come to Olympia to worship Zeus. There 
the swiftest runners raced for a wreath of olive leaves as a 
prize. Chariot races and wrestling matches and other games 
were held. The Greeks believed that Zeus and the other 
gods loved to see men using their strength and skill to do 
them honor at these festivals. So for months and months 
beforehand, men practiced for these games; and the one 
who gained the victory in them was looked upon ever after 
as the favorite of gods and men. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Read the story of Cleon, the Greek boy, in AndreAvs' Ten Boys. 

2. Find out some stories about the Greek gods named in this cliapter, 

such as the stories of Echo, and of Arachne. 

3. Read the story of Prometheus, the srod who brought fire to man 

(Harding's Greek Gods, Heroes, and Men, p. 71). 



20 



OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 




CHAPTER III 
ACHILLES AND THE WAR AGAINST TROY 

Points to Be Noted 
Location of Troy; cause of the war between the Greeks and the Trojans. 
How the war was carried on; the part taken by the gods. 
How Achilles was made proof against injury; why he withdrew from 

the fighting; why he returned. 
The fate of Hector; the fate of Achilles. 
How the Greeks finally took Troy. 

16. War with Troy Begun. The stories about their gods 
were not the only ones that the Greeks loved to tell. Many 
of their stories were about the exploits of the heroes from 
whom they thought they were descended. One of the mdst 
famous of these stories tells of a long war of the Greeks 
with the Trojans. 

Troy was a rich and well-peopled city on the coast of 
Asia Minor, across the Aegean Sea from Greece. Paris, one 
of the sons of King Priam of Troy, had run away with 
Helen, the beautiful wife of Menelaus, a Greek king, and 
had brought her to Troy. King Menelaus and his brother, 
King Agamemnon, called upon all the rulers of Greece to 
join them in trying to get Helen back, and in punishing the 
Trojans. After many months a great army set sail. When 
they reached Troy they left their ships, and camped on the 
plains before the walls of the city. The Trojans closed their 
city gates, and came out only now and then to fight the 
Greeks. For many years the war dragged on. It seemed 
as if the Greeks could not take the city, and the Trojans 
could not drive away the Greeks. 

17. Part Taken by the Gods. In this great war, even the 
gods took part. Aphrodite took the side of Troy, because 

21 



22 OLD WOELD BACKGEOUND 

she had aided Paris in carrying off Helen. Hera and 
Athena both took the side of the Greeks. Of the other 
gods, some took one side and some the other ; and long after 
this the Greeks loved to tell how men sometimes fought 
even against the gods. 

18. Bravery of Achilles. Agamemnon was the leader of 
the Greeks, but their bravest man and best fighter was 
Achilles. This prince was the son of a goddess of the ocean 
and of a Greek king, and possessed wonderful strength and 
beauty. When he was a baby, his goddess mother had 
dipped him in the waters of the dark river Styx, in the 
kingdom of Hades. He thus became proof against any 
weapon, except at one little place in the heel, where his 
mother's hand had prevented the water from touching him. 
When Agamemnon and Menelaus called upon the men of 
Greece to fight against Troy, Achilles gladly took his shield 
and spear and joined them, although it had been foretold 
that he should meet his death before Troy. Even Hector, 
the eldest son of King Priam and the champion of the 
Trojans, did not dare to stay outside the walls while Achil- 
les was in the field. 

19. Achilles' Anger. In the tenth year of the war, Achilles 
became very angry at a wrong that had been done him by 
Agamemnon. After that, he refused to join in the fighting, 
and sat and sulked in his tent. When the Trojans saw that 
Achilles was no longer in the field, they took courage again. 
Hector and the other Trojan warriors came forth and killed 
many Greek heroes, and soon the Greek army was in full 
flight. The Trojans even succeeded in burning some of 
the Greek ships. 

Then the Greeks were much dismayed, and sent to 
Achilles, asking him to help them. But he was still angry 
and refused. At last the dearest friend of Achilles came, 
and begged him to aid them once more. Still Achilles 



THE WAE AGAIXST TEOY 23 

refused, and all that he would do was to let his friend take 
his armor and go in his place. So his friend took the armor 
of Achilles and went forth, thinking that the sight of 
Achilles' arms would once more set the Trojans flying. It 
turned out otherwise, and soon word was brought to Achilles 
that Hector had slain his friend and carried off the armor. 

20. Achilles Returns to the Fight. Then Achilles saw that 
his foolish anger had cost him the life of his friend. His 
grief was very great ; and he threw himself upon the ground 
and wept, until messengers came to tell him that the Tro- 
jans were carrying off the body of his friend, so that the 
Greeks might not bury it. Achilles sprang to his feet and 
rushed toward the battlefield, without chariot or armor, 
shouting in his wrath. The goddess Athena joined her 
voice to his. The sound startled the Trojans so that they 
turned and fled, leaving the body of Achilles' friend in the 
hands of the Greeks. 

21. Death of Hector and of Achilles. Achilles' goddess 
mother obtained a new suit of armor for him from Heph- 
aestus, who was the god of metal-working; and next day 
Achilles rushed into the battle to avenge his friend. All 
day long the battle raged about the walls of Troy, the gods 
fighting among men to protect and aid their favorites. At 
the end of the day, all the Trojans except Hector had been 
driven back within their walls. After a fierce battle Achilles 
slew Hector, and then tied the feet of the dead hero to his 
chariot, and dragged him through the dust to the Greek 
camp. 

Achilles himself did not live much longer. As he was 
fighting one day, soon after this, an arrow shot by Paris 
struck him in the heel, the one spot where he could be 
wounded, and he was killed. 

22. The Wooden Horse. After Achilles was dead, the 
Greeks could not hope to take Troy by open fighting, so 



24 OLD WORLD BACKGEOUND 

they tried a trick. They pretended that they were tired of 
the long war, and that they were going home. They built a 
wooden horse as tall as a house, and leaving that in their 
camp as an offering to their gods, the Greeks got on board 
their ships and sailed away. Then the Trojans came flock- 
ing out of their city to examine this curious thing which 
the Greeks had left behind. Some of the wiser heads feared 
the wooden horse, and wanted to burn it. But others said 
that they would take it into the city, and keep it as a 
memorial of their victory over the Greeks. 

23. Destruction of Troy. So they took the wooden horse 
within the city walls. That night, after the Trojans were 
all asleep, a door opened in its side, and a man slipped out. 
Then there came another, and then another, until about 
fifty of the bravest Greeks had appeared. These slew the 
guards and opened the city gates. The Greeks who had 
sailed away that morning had come back as soon as night 
fell, and were waiting outside. They now rushed into the 
sleeping city, and soon there were only heaps of ruins to 
show where the city of Troy had stood. 

In that night's fighting. King Priam, his queen and all 
of his children, and most of his people were killed. King 
Menelaus found Helen, and took her back again to his own 
country. Paris had brought destruction on his family and 
on the whole kingdom, and he too lost his life in the fall of 

■y* Topics for Review and Search 

1. Judging from this story, what qualities did the Greeks most admire? 

2. What can you learn from this story concerning Greek ways of fight- 

ing in the early days? 

3. Let one pupil find out and tell some stories about Heracles (Her- 

cules) . 

4. Let another do the same for Theseus. 

5. Another may tell the story of Jason and the Golden Fleece. 

6. The wanderings of Odysseus (Ulysses) may be told by still another 

pupil. (These stories may all be found in Harding's Greek 
Gods, Heroes, and Men.) 



CHAPTER IV 

SPARTA AND ATHENS 

Points to Be Noted 

Difference between myths and history. 

Location of Sparta ; her relations with her neighbors ; Spartan training 

and its results. 
Location of Athens; occupations of her people; what made Athens 

famous. 

24. Myths and History, The stories of the gods, and of 
the warriors who fought around Troy, are what we call 
"myths." They tell about things which occurred so very 
long ago that nobody can tell just when they happened, or 
how much of the story is true and how much is only fancy. 
Now you are to read about things most of which we are 
quite sure did happen, and which took place very nearly at 
the time and place and in the way that the story says. 
These stories we call "history," to distinguish them from 
myths. 

25. Two Chief Cities of Greece. In historic times there 
were two great cities in Greece named respectively Athens 
and Sparta. These cities were not nearly so large as most 
modern cities, but the deeds of their citizens have made 
them famous for all time. They were only one hundred 
and fifty miles apart, but in their institutions and in the 
character of their citizens they were much more different 
than are New York and San Francisco. 

26. Sparta and the Spartans. The Spartans had built their 
city among a people whom they had only half conquered, 
and in addition they were surrounded by other peoples 
with whom they had many bitter wars. Because their sub- 
jects and neighbors were so hostile to them, the Spartans 

25 



26 OLD WOELD BACKGEOUND 

had always to be prepared against attacks. Sparta was 
built in an inland valley, which was surrounded by moun- 
tains. There were no walls or fortifications to protect the 
city, for it was the Spartans' proud boast that their warlike 
citizens made walls for defense unnecessary. But the Spar- 
tans found that it took a long and severe training to make 
their boys into good soldiers, and to keep their men always 
in readiness for war. So Sparta became more like a mili- 
tary camp than like an ordinary town. 

27. Spartan Training. When a Spartan boy reached the 
age of seven years, he was taken from his parents and 
placed with other boys of his age in a great public training- 
house. There he lived until he became a man. The boys 
led a very hard life. Summer and winter they had to go 
barefooted, with only a thin shirt or tunic for clothing. 
At night they slept on beds of rushes which they them- 
selves had gathered from the banks of the river near by. 
They had to do all the cooking and other work for them- 
selves. The food which was given them was never as much 
as hungry, growing boys needed, so they were forced to 
hunt and fish to get food. They did not study books as 
you do; but they were taught running, wrestling, boxing, 
and the use of the spear and sword. 

When the boys became men, they left the training-house 
and were formed into soldier companies. But still they 
had to live together, eating at the same table and sleeping 
in the same building. It was not until they had become 
old men, and could no longer serve in war, that they were 
allowed to leave their companies and have homes of their 
own. Thus the men of Sparta became strong in body, strict 
in their habits, and skillful in the use of weapons, and 
were able to conquer all their old enemies. Again and 
again they proved that they were the best soldiers in the 
world at that time. 



SPARTA AND ATHENS 27 

28. Athens and the Athenians. Unlike Sparta, Athens was 
situated near the sea, and was built about a steep hill, 
called the Acropolis. This proved an excellent place for 
defense, and as a result the Athenians did not need to 
spend as much time as did the Spartans in preparing for 



ATHENS AS IT IS NOW 
The mountain in the background is not the Acropolis, but Mt. Lycabettus 

war. They were brave soldiers, but they were interested 
in many other things besides warfare. Some of the Atheni- 
ans were farmers; others became manufacturers and made 
articles of pottery, glass, leather, and various metals. Still 
others became skillful and daring sailors, guiding their ships 
to lands as far distant as the eastern shores of the Black 
Sea, and to the coasts of Gaul and Spain in the west. 
Everywhere the Athenians went they traded with the 
natives, and thus their city grew rich and prosperous. It 



28 OLD WOELD BACKGEOUND 

became a great center for commerce, with its harbor always 
full of ships and its market-place thronged with foreign 
merchants. 

29. Athenian Culture. But Athens came also to be widely 
known for things even more important than the skill of her 
workmen, the daring of her sailors, and the enterprise of 
her traders. Her greatest fame comes from the fact that 
some of the most eminent artists, poets, and thinkers that 
have ever lived, dwelt within her walls. Upon the Acropo- 
lis, about the market-place, and in many other parts of the 
city stood beautiful marble temples and other public build- 
ings. These were adorned with statues and sculptured 
scenes that no artist since has ever been able to equal. In 
her theater, too, were acted noble plays, which men read 
today with delight ; and the writings of her profound think- 
ers are still attentively studied. In everything which 
relates to beauty, and culture, and wisdom, the Greeks 
have been the teachers of the whole world; and of all the 
Greeks who contributed to this end the Athenians stood 
first. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. How do you account for the difference in character between the 

Athenians and the Spartans? 

2. Why is a city on a hilltop more easily defended than one in a plain ? 

3. Imagine yourself a Spartan boy and tell how you spend the day. 

4. Find out what you can about the life of girls in Athens and in Sparta 

(Gulick, Life of the Ancient Greeks). 

5. Read an account of Solon, the Athenian lawgiver {Greek Gods, 

Heroes, and Men, p. 133). 



CHAPTER V 

THE WAR OF THE GREEKS AND 
THE PERSIANS 

Points to Be Noted 

Extent of the Persian empire. 

Why the Athenians helped the Asiatic Greeks ; results of their sending 

aid. 
Size of the Persian army at Marathon; why the Greek army was not 

larger. 
Commander of the Athenians; how the victory was won. 
The new king of the Persians; the army which he collected; how it 

crossed the Hellespont. 

30. The Persian Empire. On the coasts of Asia Minor, 
across the Aegean Sea from Greece, were many cities which 
had been founded by Greek settlers. These cities had once 
been free, but at the time of this story, which was about 
five hundred years before the birth of Christ, they were 
under the rule of the Persian King, Darius. This king 
ruled over a vast empire, which stretched from the Aegean 
Sea eastward as far as India, a distance almost as great 
as from New York to San Francisco. (See map, p. 50.) 

31. Athens Aids the Rebellious Cities. After a time these 
Greek cities rebelled against the rule of King Darius. The 
Athenians, who thought it a shame for their kinsmen to be 
subjects and not free men, sent help to them. In the war 
which followed, the Athenians burned one of the king's 
cities. When Darius heard this, he asked, "Who are these 
Athenians?" for he had never heard of them before. 

Then, when he was told who they were, he called for his 
bow, and placing an arrow on the string, he shot it high up 
into the air and prayed to the Persian god: 

29 



80 OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 

"Grant me, God, that I may revenge myself on the 
Athenians!" And ever after that, as long as the king 
lived, he had a servant stand behind him at dinner-time 
and say three times, — 

"Master, remember the Athenians!" 

32. Preparations for War. When the king's troops were 
ready, he sent them on board ships, and they sailed across 
the sea to destroy Athens and to conquer all Greece. There 
were more than a hundred thousand men in the army. 
When the Athenians heard that so many enemies were 
coming they were very much frightened, for they did not 
have nearly so large an army They sent a swift runner, 
named Pheidippides, to Sparta, to ask the Spartans to help 
them. But the Spartans sent back word that they could 
not come until the moon had reached the full. Their laws 
forbade them to send out an army until then, and they 
dared not break their laws. 

When the Athenians heard this they were very much 
disturbed. The Persians had now landed on their shores, 
and were only a few miles from their city. Yet the 
Athenians sent out their army to meet them. As they 
marched, a thousand soldiers came and joined them from 
a little town near Athens, which the Athenians had be- 
friended. Even then the Persians had ten times as many 
men as the Athenians had. 

33. Battle of Marathon (490 B.C.). The battle took place 
in a narrow plain called Marathon, between the mountains 
and the sea. When Miltiades, the Athenian general, 
thought that the time had come to fight, he led his men 
out of camp and charged upon the Persians. The latter 
were so crowded together that they could not use all their 
men. The Greeks fought, too, as they had never fought 
before; for they knew that they were fighting for their 
homes, and for their wives and little children, who would 



THE GREEKS AND PERSIANS 31 

be sold as slaves if their husbands and fathers were de- 
feated. So it was not long before the Persians, in spite of 
their many men, began to give way. Then they began to 
break ranks, and soon they were running as fast as they 
could to their ships, with the Athenians following them. 

It was a glorious victory for the Athenians. The Persians 
were so discouraged that when they got on their ships again 
they turned about and sailed away for Asia Minor. This 
was the end of the first attempt of the Persians to conquer 
the Greeks. 

34. Xerxes Renews the War. You can imagine how angry 
King Darius was when he heard that the Athenians had 
beaten his fine army at Marathon. But he was now busy 
with other matters, and he died before he could renew the 
war. His son, Xerxes, was not nearly so good a soldier as 
Darius had been; nevertheless, he decided to go on with 
the war and to lead the army himself. 

35. Army of Xerxes. Xerxes was a vain and foolish man, 
and wanted his army to be the largest that the world had 
ever seen. So men came from all parts of his empire at 
his command, — black men, white men, and brown men. 
Some were clothed in the skins of foxes, leopards, and 
lions, and others wore flowing robes, glittering with gold 
and jewels. Some were armed with brass helmets, large 
shields, long spears, and daggers; others with helmets of 
wood, small shields, and bows and arrows; and some with 
nothing for weapons but long sticks, with the ends sharp- 
ened and hardened in the fire. Nobody knows how many 
men there were in this army, but there must have been 
hundreds of thousands. 

36. Crossing the Hellespont. The army was so great that 
Xerxes could not get enough ships to carry it to Greece ; so 
he was obliged to send most of it by land. At a place 
called the Hellespont only a narrow strait separates Europe 



32 OLD WOELD BACKGEOUND 

from Asia, and here it was that Xerxes decided to cross. 
Thousands of slaves were set to work building bridges made 
of boats fastened together. When all was ready the great 
army began to move; and though there were two bridges, 
and the crossing continued without a stop, seven days and 
seven nights passed before the last man was on the other 
side. 

Topics for Bevlew and Search 

1. Find out more about the story of Pheidippides. (Read Browning's 

poem about him.) 

2. Why was it better for the Athenians to go out to meet the Persians 

at Marathon than to wait for them to attack the city itself? 

3. Compare the armies which fought in the Persian War with those of 

the Great War of 1914-18 as to size, weapons, etc. 

4. What is the Hellespont now called? Find out what you can of the 

Gallipoli Expedition of 1915. 



CHAPTER VI 
THE BATTLES OF THERMOPYLAE AND SALAMIS 

Points to Be Noted 

The pass of Thermopylae; how it was defended; heroism of Leonidas 
and his Spartans; how the Persians took the pass. 

How Themistoeles explained the oracle; the burning of Athens. 

Why Xerxes could not reach Sparta; how Themistoeles forced the 
Greeks to light at Salamis. 

The battle of Salamis; the manner of fighting; advantages of the 
Greeks. 

Why Xerxes gave up the war. 

37. Xerxes Invades Greece (480 B.C.). When the Greeks 
heard that King Xerxes was marching against them with 
so large an army, they were greatly frightened. Some of 
them sent him earth and water, as he commanded them, 
showing that they gave up their land to him. But the 
Athenians and the Spartans said that they would die be- 
fore they would become the king's slaves. 

In the northern part of Greece there was a place, called 
the pass of Thermopylae, where the mountains came down 
almost to the sea, leaving only a narrow road between. 
Through this the king's army had to go to reach Athens 
and Sparta. Since the pass was so narrow, the Greeks 
thought that they might stop the Persians there and so 
save their country. 

38. Thermopylae. It was decided that the Athenians, who 
were the best sailors in Greece, should fight the king's 
ships on the sea, while the Spartans guarded the pass of 
Thermopylae. But just at that time there was a great 
festival among the Spartans in honor of the god Apollo. 
Although King Xerxes was already marching against their 



34 OLD WORLD BACKGEOUND 

land, they did not wish to slight the worship of their god. 
The result was that they sent to Thermopylae only three 
hundred Spartans, under the command of Leonidas, telling 
him that they would send more when the festival was over. 
With these three hundred men and a few hundred more 
that he got elsewhere, Leonidas had to face the many thou- 
sands that Xerxes led, for the other Spartans did not come 
until after the battle was over. 

When Xerxes came in sight of the pass, he found the 
Spartans amusing themselves with gymnastic exercises, and 
combing their long hair. When he sent to them, and 
ordered them to give up their arms, they sent back word 
for him to "come and take them." One of the Spartans 
was told that the number of the Persians was so great that 
when they shot their arrows into the air they hid the sun 
like a cloud. "So much the better," said he, "for then we 
shall fight in the shade." 

After waiting four days for the Spartans to surrender, 
Xerxes at last sent some of his men to make prisoners of 
them, and bring them to him. But this they could not do. 
All that day and all the next day the king's army fought 
against the Spartans. Though some of the Spartans and 
many of the Persians were killed, the Spartans would not 
let the king go through the pass. 

39. How the Pass Was Taken. At the end of the second 
day, however, a Greek traitor told King Xerxes of a path 
which led over the mountain and around the pass. By this 
he was able to send men to the rear of the Greeks, and so 
attack them from both sides. Leonidas now knew that the 
end had come. He sent away the men who were not Spar- 
tans; but he and his men fought on, for it was considered 
a disgrace for a Spartan to surrender. Not until the last 
Spartan in the pass was killed could King Xerxes lead his 
army through. 



THERMOPYLAE AND SALAMIS 35 

After the war was over, the Greeks placed a marble lion, 
in honor of King Leonidas, on the little mound where the 
Spartans had made their last fight. Near by, another monu- 
ment was set up in honor of his followers, and on it these 
words were cut: — 

"Go, stranger, and to the Spartans tell 
That here, obeying their commands, we fell." 

40. Advice of the Oracle. From Thermopylae, King Xerxes 
and his army marched down into Greece, punishing the 
people of all the places that had refused to send him earth 
and water. At Athens the people were in great fear. They 
knew that their turn would come next, and that the king 
would punish them more severely than any of the other 
Greeks. They sent to the oracle at Delphi and asked, — 

"0 Apollo! how may we save Athens from the wrath of 
Xerxes?" But the priestess only answered, — 

"Nothing can now save your city ; yet when all is lost, a 
wooden wall shall shelter the Athenians." 

This saying puzzled the Athenians very much. It was 
some comfort to know that, though their city was to be 
destroyed, they were to be saved. But where was the 
"wooden wall" that Apollo said would shelter them? Some 
thought it meant one thing, and some thought it meant 
another. At last a quick-witted Athenian, named Themis- 
tocles, said, — 

"The wooden wall means our ships. If we leave our city 
and fight the Persians on the water we shall win the battle. 
That is what Apollo promises us. Will you do it?" 

Themistocles spoke so well that the people agreed to do 
what he advised. When Xerxes came, they went on board 
their ships and left the city to the Persians, who pulled 
down the walls, and burned the city. Then Xerxes wished 
to go on to Sparta and punish it also. The only way to 
reach that city was by marching along the narrow isthmus 



36 



OLD WORLD BACKGEOUND 




THERMOPYLAE AND SALAMIS 37 

which joined the northern part of Greece to the southern. 
This he could not do until he had driven away the Greek 
ships which were guarding it. 

41. Stratagem of Themistocles. These ships were in a nar- 
row strait between an island, called Salamis, and the shore. 
The Greeks had only one-third as many ships as the Per- 
sians had; so when they saw the Persian ships row up to 
the end of the strait they were very much frightened. Only 
the Athenians were brave and fearless. To keep the other 
Greek ships from slipping away in the night, Themistocles 
sent a message to Xerxes, pretending to be his friend. 

"If you want to keep the Greeks from getting away," 
the messenger told the king, "you must send some of your 
ships around the island, and shut up the other end of the 
strait." 

42. The Battle of Salamis. This seemed sensible, so Xerxes 
did as Themistocles advised. The next morning the battle 
began. When the trumpet sounded, the Greeks rowed for- 
ward and tried to run down the Persian ships and sink 
them. As the ships came near one another, each side 
threw spears and shot arrows at the other side. Some- 
times a ship would get alongside a ship of the enemy ; then 
soldiers would spring upon the deck of the other boat, and 
they would fight with swords just as they did on land. 

All day long the fight went on. There were two things 
that were in favor of the Greeks, and which helped to give 
them the victory. There were so many Persian ships that 
they were all crowded together in the narrow strait, and 
could not get out of the way when they saw a Greek ship 
coming. Besides this, the Greeks were fighting for their 
homes, while the Persians were fighting only because their 
king had ordered them to ; so the Greeks fought the better. 
At last, after a great many of the Persian ships had been 
sunk, the rest turned and fled. The Greeks had won the 



38 OLD WOELD BACKGEOUND 

victory, and Themistocles was the one who had helped 
them most to gain it. 

43. Xerxes Gives Up the War. During all the fight King 
Xerxes had sat on a golden throne on a hill near the strait. 
He was very angry when he saw his ships flee, and he had 
many of his captains put to death. But, as he was a 
coward at heart, he was a little afraid. Suppose the Greeks 
should send their ships up to the Hellespont, and destroy 
his bridges of boats, how would he and his army get back 
to Persia? Besides, he had punished the Athenians by 
burning their city; and that, he said, was the chief thing 
he had come to do. So the king gave up his plan to con- 
quer Greece, and when the next morning came he was 
already on his march homeward. 

This was not the end of the Persian wars, but it was 
the turning point. Twice the Persians had seemed just 
about to conquer Greece, and both times they had failed. 
The first time they had failed because Miltiades had fought 
so bravely against them at Marathon. The second time 
it was Themistocles who had prevented them by his skill 
in bringing about the battle at Salamis. After this the 
Persians were never again to have the chance to conquer 
Greece. When next we read about them, we shall see how 
they themselves were conquered in their own land by the 
Greeks. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Trace on the map the march of Xerxes from the Hellespont. 

2. Did the Spartans do right in remaining at Thermopylae after they 

could no longer keep back the Persians? Give reasons for your 
answer. 

3. Describe a Greek warship (see picture on p. 20). 

4. Why was Themistocles so anxious to fight the Persians at Salamis? 

5. Does Athens or Sparta deserve the greater credit for saving Greece 

from the Persians? Why? 



CHAPTER VII 
ATHENS UNDER PERICLES 

Points to Be Noted 
What made Pericles leader of Athens; his object. 
How the Athenians governed themselves. 
Description of Athens; the temples and statues on the Acropolis. 

44. Leadership of Pericles (444-429 B.C.). After the Per- 
sians had been driven out of the land, the Athenians rebuilt 
their ruined city. It soon grew to be richer and more 
powerful than it had ever been, and became the chief city 
of all Greece. A man named Pericles then became the 
head of their government. He was not a king, for the 
Athenians had a democratic government ; that is, each citi- 
zen took part in the m-aking of laws and in selecting the 
officers of the city. Pericles had the chief power in the 
city because he was so eloquent, so patriotic, and so wise 
that he was almost always able to persuade the people to 
vote for what he thought was best for Athens. He was a 
greater leader than Themistocles, because he knew not only 
how to govern and to make war, but also how to make his 
city noble and beautiful. It was to make Athens surpass 
all other cities in these ways, as well as in wealth and 
power, that he set himself especially to work. 

45. Government of Athens. The government of Athens 
was closely associated with a hill called the Pnyx, which 
stood within the city walls. On its sloping sides the citi- 
zens assembled, about four times each month, to listen to 
speeches, to vote on new laws, or to elect city officers. 
The citizens were paid a small sum for attending this as- 
sembly, and when they were all together they numbered 

39 



40 



OLD WOELD BACKGEOUND 




ATHENS UNDER PERICLES . 41 

about thirty thousand. On the top of the hill was a small 
platform, on which the orators stood when they spoke to 
the people either for or against any measure which was 
proposed. 

46. The Acropolis. Even more important than the Pnyx 
was the steep, flat-topped hill of the Acropolis, for it was 
the center of the worship of the gods. 

In olden times the Acropolis had been the fort of the 
Athenians, but even before the Persians came, there had 
been a temple to the goddess Athena on it. This had been 
burned during the war. Now Pericles planned in its place 
not one, but many, temples. On this steep hill the beauti- 
ful buildings arose which have made his name famous in 
all times and in all countries. 

Imagine yourself an Athenian boy, and that your father 
is taking you up this hill to the great festival of the god- 
dess Athena. Only on one side can the hill be climbed, and 
up this the road winds and turns till it reaches the top. 
There you come to a gateway or porch of the finest marble, 
with great tall columns supporting the roof. On the left 
is a building with rooms filled with pictures and other 
precious things. Going through the gateway you come out 
on the top of the hill. Beyond the city you see the blue 
sea gleaming in the distance. All about you, you see tem- 
ples and statues. Here is a beautiful temple to the goddess 
of Victory. There is a row of statues in honor of heroes, 
or of Athenian citizens who have at different times won 
the prize in the games at Olympia. Not far away is a great 
statue of Athena, the guardian of the city. This statue is 
taller than the tallest house, and is made out of the swords 
and shields taken from the Persians at Marathon. From 
far away at sea the sailors are able to catch sight of the 
tip of her spear, and when they see that, they know they 
are nearing home. 



42 . 



OLD WOELD BACKGEOUND 



Not far from this statue is a temple to Poseidon, the god 
of the sea. In it is a well of salt water, which your father 
tells you gushed forth when Poseidon once 
struck the rock with his trident. Coming out 
of this temple, you walk through a beautiful 
porch. In this the roof is held up, not by 
columns, but by the statues of six young 
maidens clothed in long flowing garments 
(see p. 53). 
47. Temple of Athena. You hurry past 
these beautiful buildings, so that 
you may not miss the best part of 
the festival. You hasten over to 
the highest part of the hill, and 
there you come to the largest and 
most beautiful temple of all, called 
the Parthenon. This is the most 
beautiful building that the 
world has ever seen. It is the 
temple of Athena, the "maid- 
en goddess." All around it 
are rows of tall marble col- 
umns. Within it is a statue 
of the goddess, which reaches 
almost to the roof ; and in her 
right hand is held a little fig- 
ure of Victory. The statue is 
made of ivory and pure gold, 
and is equaled in beauty and 
richness only by the great 
statue of Zeus at Olympia. 
All about the temple are the 
finest carvings. Here they represent the birth of Athena 
from the head of father Zeus. There thev show the Athen- 




STATUE OF ATHENA IN THE 
PARTHENON 



ATHENS UNDER PERICLES 43 

ians fighting with the strange creatures, half horse and half 
man, called Centaurs. Here is a long series of carvings 
showing the great procession of Athenian youths, some on 
horseback, some on foot, coming to celebrate the festival 
of Athena. And as you gaze at them, longing for the time 
when you, too, may take part in the worship of the goddess, 
suddenly you hear your father call — 

"Look, look, my son!" 

Then you turn about and look, and there, just coming 
through the gates and entering upon the top of the hill, 
you see the procession itself which you have climbed the 
hill to watch. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Point out in the picture of the Acropolis on page 40 the buildings 

described in this chapter. 

2. What differences do you notice between the way that Athens was 

governed and the way that an American city is governed? 

3. Look up the stories about Poseidon, Zeus, Athena, and the Centaurs. 



CHAPTER VIII 
SOCRATES THE PHILOSOPHER 

Points to be Noted 
Athens the home of great thinkers; what a philosopher is. 
The reply of the oracle; what Socrates found out; how he taught. 
Why Socrates was hated; his trial, his life in prison, and his death. 

48. What Is a Philosopher? Athens in the time of Pericles 
was the home not only of the artists who built the temples 
and carved the sculptures on the Acropolis, but also of 
some of the greatest thinkers of the whole world. One 
of the most noted of these Greek thinkers, who, however, 
lived some time after the death of Pericles, was the phil- 
osopher Socrates. 

Have you not at times wondered what the world is, and 
what it is made of; what we are here for, and how we 
ought to spend our lives? A man who thinks a great deal 
about questions like these, and tries to find reasonable 
answers to them, we call a philosopher. Socrates is famous 
for the wise answers which he found to many such questions. 

49. Socrates and the Oracle. When Socrates was a young 
man he had a friend who admired him very much, and 
thought that even then he was the wisest person whom 
he knew. So, once when this friend was at Delphi, he 
asked the oracle if there was any one wiser than Socrates, 
and the oracle answered that there was not. When he 
came home and told Socrates what the oracle had said, 
Socrates was very much astonished. He was sure that 
there must be some mistake, for he knew that he was not 
wise. He was sure the oracle must mean something else. 

Socrates set to work to show that there were other 
men in Athens who were wiser than he. First, he came to 
a man who was at that time one of the governors of the city 

44 



SOCRATES THE PHILOSOPHER 45 

and who was looked upon as very wise. Socrates asked 
this man a great many questions. But he found that the 
man was not wise at all, though he thought that he knew 
everything. So Socrates came away, saying, — 

"At any rate, I am wiser than that man. Neither of us 
knows anything that is great and good; but he thinks that 
he does, while I know that I do not. So I am that much 
wiser than he is." 

Then Socrates went to others who were thought to be 
wise, and things always turned out in the same manner. 
He found that the men who were considered to be the 
wisest were often the very ones that knew the least about 
the things that were the most worth knowing about. But 
when he tried to make them see this, they grew angry 
with him. 

50, Socrates' Questions. At length Socrates saw what the 
oracle meant by saying that there was no one wiser than 
he. But he grew so interested in his search that he spent 
all his days in the market-place, and in other spots where 
crowds were to be found. Whenever he met a man who 
thought that he was wise, he would question him, and 
ask him what goodness was, and what bravery was, and 
why some people were good and some were bad. In this 
way he tried to show that no one was really wise. 

51. Trial of Socrates. You can readily see that people did 
not like this. No one likes to have another person prove 
to him how little he knows. So Socrates offended many 
people, and made them dislike him. After this had gone 
on for some time, the enemies of Socrates determined to 
get rid of him. They brought a charge against him in the 
court, saying, — 

"Socrates offends against the laws by not paying respect 
to the gods that the city respects, and by bringing in new 
gods; and also by leading the young men into bad habits." 



46 OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 

Though this charge was unjust, Socrates was found guilty 
in spite of all that his friends could do. When the judges 
called upon him to say what punishment he deserved, So- 
crates bravely answered — 

"Instead of punishment, Athenians, I deserve a re- 
ward; and if you ask me what it is, I say that I ought to 
be supported by the state as long as I live, just as those 
who win in the Olympic games are supported; for I am 
more worthy of honor than they are." 

52. He Refuses to Escape. This saying angered his ene- 
mies still more, and they then voted that he should be put 
to death. But according to their laws a whole month must 
pass by before this could be done. During this time he 
lived in prison, where he spent his time talking to his 
friends, who were allowed to visit him. One day they told 
him that they had made arrangements for him to escape 
from the prison and flee to some other city, where he would 
be safe. But Socrates refused. The laws, he said, con- 
demned him to death ; and it was his duty, as a good citi- 
zen, to obey them even in that. 

53. His Death. At last the day came for his death, and 
all his friends gathered weeping about him. Calmly and 
cheerfully Socrates took the cup of poison hemlock which 
was given him, and drank it down as though it had been 
water. Then, bidding good-bye to his friends, he lay down 
on his couch, and soon he was dead. 

There is one especial saying of Socrates that ought always 
to be remembered. This is it: "Nothing evil can happen 
to a good man, either while he is living or after he is dead ; 
nor are the gods unmindful of his affairs." 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Find out what you can of Socrates' famous pupil, Plato. 

2. Was Socrates right in submitting to unjust punishment? 

3. Memorize his saying, at the end of this chapter. 



CHAPTER IX 
ALEXANDER THE GREAT 

Points to Be Noted 
War between the Greek cities; their conquest by Philip of Macedonia; 

Philip's plan. 
Alexander's boyhood; how he managed his kingdom. 
His defeat of the Persians; his march to the East; his plans for his 

empire. 
Alexander's death; what became of his empire. 

54. Philip of Macedonia Conquers the Greeks. We have 
seen how the Athenians and Spartans joined together in 
the wars against the Persians. But when all danger from 
the Persians was past, and Athens became so great and 
powerful, Sparta grew very jealous of her. This jealousy 
finally led to a great war between the two cities. Most of 
the other cities of Greece took part in the war, some on 
one side and some on the other. When at last the war 
was over, Athens was no longer the rich and powerful city 
she had been. She had lost her fleet, most of the subject 
lands over which she had ruled, and many thousands of 
her citizens. From this time on there were many wars 
between the Greek cities, until at length they all became 
so weak and exhausted with fighting that it was an easy 
matter for a king who lived to the north of Greece to come 
down and conquer them all. This king was named Philip, 
and he ruled over the country called Macedonia. 

55. Philip's Plan. When King Philip had conquered the 
Greeks, he treated them kindly. He told them that he was 
planning to go on into Asia and conquer the Persians, and 
the Greeks willingly agreed to help him. But before Philip 
could carry out his plans he died, and his son Alexander 
became king in his place. 

47 



48 



OLD WOELD BACKGEOUND 



56. Alexander As a Boy. Alexander soon showed that he 
was an even greater man than his father had been. While 
he was still a boy, a beautiful but wild and high-spirited 
horse had been brought to his father's court. None of the 
king's men could manage it, and Philip was about to send 
it away when Alexander said, — 

"I could manage that horse better than those men do." 




STATUE OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT 

The king heard what his son said, and gave him per- 
mission to try. Alexander ran forward, and took the horse 
by the bridle. He had noticed that the horse seemed to 
be afraid of the motion of his shadow, so he turned him 



ALEXANDER THE GREAT 4S 

directly toward the sun. Then he stroked him gently with 
his hand until he became quiet. 

When, this was accomplished Alexander gave one quick 
leap and was on the horse's back, and in a little while he 
was riding him quietly about the yard. King Philip was 
so pleased that he gave him the horse for his own, and in 
later years it carried him safely through many battles. 
Alexander was so fond of this horse that, when it died, he 
built it a splendid monument. 

57. Alexander Becomes King. Alexander was only twenty 
years old when he became king, but he soon showed that 
he could manage his kingdom as well as he could his horses. 
Because the king was so young, the peoples whom his 
father had conquered thought that they could now win 
back their freedom. But Alexander marched swiftly from 
one end of the kingdom to the other, and everything was 
soon quiet again. The young king then prepared to carry 
out his father's plans, and make war on the Persians. He 
gathered an army of Macedonians and Greeks, and with 
this he crossed over into Asia. 

58. His Battles with the Persians. Alexander fought three 
great battles with the Persians. Although the king of the 
Persians had twenty times as many men as Alexander had, 
Alexander won all three of the battles. This was partly 
because the Greeks and the Macedonians were much better 
soldiers than the Persians. Also it was because the Persian 
king was a poor general and such a coward. Almost be- 
fore the fight had begun, he would leave his chariot, mount 
a horse, and gallop away. Of course his soldiers would not 
fight after their leader had fled. 

59. Alexander's Conquests. After the third battle, the 
Persian king was killed by some of his own men, as he 
was trying to get farther and farther away from Alexander. 
Alexander himself then became ruler of the mighty empire 



50 



OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 




ALEXANDER THE GREAT 51 

of the Persians. Besides Persia itself, he got Palestine, 
where the Jews lived, and Egypt, which was older and richer 
than any of the other countries. After he had won these 
countries, Alexander marched far eastward into Asia, look- 
ing for other lands to conquer. On and on he marched, for 
many months, over mountains and burning deserts and 
fertile plains. He found many strange lands, and con- 
quered many strange peoples. But still he urged his army 
on, until the soldiers began to fear that they would never 
see their homes again. 



l~ 


\ / 


^ 


bi 


1 


^^m 


M 


m 


^ 


^^^^^^^P^ 


^^^^^ 


^^^ 



ALEXANDER DEFEATING THE PERSIANS 
(From a Greek mosaic) 

At last they reached India, which you know Columbus 
tried to reach by sailing around the world in the other 
direction. Here Alexander's army refused to go farther, 
and he was forced, much against his will, to turn about and 
return to Persia. 

60. Alexander As a Ruler. But you must not think of 
Alexander only as a great conqueror. He was a great ex- 
plorer as well, and wherever he went he gathered specimens 
of strange plants and animals, and sent them back to 
learned men in Greece. He also sent back accounts of the 
lands which he conquered, and in that way he added a 
great deal to what men then knew about the world. He 



52 OLD WORLD BACKGEOUND 

was also a wise ruler, and founded many new cities in 
Asia and in Egypt. After he had returned from India, his 
mind was full of plans for making one great empire out of 
the many countries over which he ruled. The capital of 
this empire was to be in Persia ; and the Greeks, the Mace- 
donians, the Jews, the Egyptians, and the people of India 
were all to have part in it. 

While he was full of these plans, he suddenly became ill 
of a fever, and died. He was only thirty- two years old; 
yet he had been king for nearly thirteen years, and had 
done more wonderful things than any other king ever did 
either before or since. 

61. Greeks After Alexander. After Alexander died, there 
was no one who could rule over his vast empire, and it soon 
fell to pieces. The Macedonians continued to rule over 
the Greeks for more than a hundred years. Then, when 
they lost their power, there was another people ready to 
step in, and to take their place as rulers of the Greeks. So 
the old Greeks never got back their freedom; and since a 
people who are not free seldom have noble thoughts, or do 
noble deeds, the Greeks never again became as great as 
they had been in the glorious days of Themistocles and 
Pericles. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Trace Alexander's march on the map (p. 50). 

2. What is the difference between an empire and a kingdom? 

3. Why should Alexander be called "the Great"? 



CHAPTER X 
THE SPREAD OF GREEK CULTURE 

Points to Be Noted 

Influence of the Greeks on the world of today. 

How Greek culture was spread; Greek cities on the Mediterranean 

coast; founding of Greek cities in the East. 
Alexandria; its commerce and wealth; its schools and library. 
Roman conquests of Greek cities; how the Romans learned from the 

Greeks. 

62. What Greece Has Given Us. Though the Greeks lost 
their freedom, the benefits of their achievements were not 
lost to the world. In almost every great school in Europe 
and America today, the works of poets such as Homer, who 
sang about the Trojan war, are still read with delight. The 
teachings of Greek philosophers still influence the thoughts 
and actions of men. There is scarcely a modern city in 
which there are not buildings copied, wholly or in part, after 
the great temples on the Acropolis. And on the walls of 
homes and schoolrooms all over our country are photographs 
and plaster casts of the masterpieces of Greek sculpture. 

63. How Greek Culture Was Spread. How was it, you may 
ask, that Greek knowledge and wisdom and art were passed 
on to other peoples, and so handed down to us through the 
many centuries which lie between us and the Greeks? 

We have seen how skillful and daring the Athenian sailors 
were. Those of many other Greek cities were no less enter- 
prising. Long before the Persian wars began, thousands of 
Greeks had found new homes for themselves in distant 
lands, and Greek cities dotted the coasts of Asia Minor, of 
Italy, and of Sicily, and lined the shores of the Aegean and 
Black Seas. The Greeks showed good judgment in select- 
ing sites for their towns, and many great seaports of the 
present day stand on the ruins of ancient Greek colonies. 

53 



54 



OLD WORLD BACKGEOUND 



Among these are Marseilles in France, Naples in Italy, Syra- 
cuse in Sicily, and Constantinople in Turkey. 

In their colonies the Greeks kept up the religion, lan- 
guage, and customs of their mother country; and the less 
civilized peoples among whom they settled learned from 
them their ways of living. When Alexander conquered the 
East, he founded many more cities, and the rulers who 




A TEMPLE ON THE ACROPOLIS (The Erechtheum) 

came after him followed his example. Thus the Greeks 
became the teachers of the East as well as of the West. 

64. Alexandria, a Center of Greek Culture. Alexandria, in 
Egypt, was the most famous of all the cities founded by 
Alexander the Great. It stands at the mouth of the Nile 
River, and it was in ancient times what it still is today, a 
great commercial center. Ships from all over the Medi- 
terranean came to its harbor. River boats brought to it 
the produce of the fertile Nile Valley. Caravans connected 



SPREAD OF GREEK CULTURE 55 

it with the cities of Asia, and with ports on the Red Sea 
from which commerce was carried on with far-off India. 
Alexandria became very rich as a result of this trade, and 
it was adorned with magnificent temples and public 
buildings. 

65. Its Library and Scholars. One group of these buildings 
formed something like a modern college or university. The 
chief building was the library, in which were more than 
five hundred thousand books, the largest collection in an- 
cient times. You must remember that books in those days 
were very different from those of our own day. They were 
written by hand, usually upon parchment made from sheep- 
skin, or upon paper made from the papyrus plant. They 
were then rolled around two sticks, as you may see in the 
picture on page 101. Besides the library there were in 
Alexandria observatories for watching the stars, and bo- 
tanical and zoological gardens for studying plants and ani- 
mals. There were also great halls at which scholars lived 
at the public expense. Learned men came to Alexandria 
from all over the known world to study and to write books. 
It was here that the Jews translated the Old Testament 
into Greek, because that was the language which could 
then be read by educated men everywhere. It was here 
also that the scholars lived who first studied and discussed 
the writings of the New Testament. Here, too, lived 
Ptolemy, a Greek writer on geography, who taught that 
the earth is a globe. His book, as we shall see, helped 
Columbus, long afterwards, to discover the New World. 

66. The Romans Adopt Greek Culture. In the course of 
time, all the lands in which the Greeks had settled were 
conquered by the Romans. The conquerors carried off to 
Rome many of the most precious things in the Greek cities, 
such as statuary, vases, and books. These objects helped 
the Romans, who were a strong and warlike but rather rude 



56 OLD WORLD BACKGEOUND 

and uncultured people, to appreciate Greek art and learn- 
ing. It became the custom for the Roman young men who 
could afford to do so to go to some Greek city, such as 
Athens or Alexandria, to complete their education, just as 
many American young men and women go to Europe for 
the same purpose. 

Thus it was that the Romans learned to know and value 
Greek culture. Later we shall see what they added to this 
culture, and how they in turn passed it on to other peoples. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. What pictures of Greek buildings and statues have you seen? 

2. Study the picture on page 54, and find buildings in your town which 

show similar columns, ornaments, etc. 

3. Locate on a map the modern cities which were first settled by the 

Greeks. 

4. Write a description of a Greek library. 

5. The followers of Christ wrote the New Testament in Greek. Why 

did they do so"? 
G. Find out what became of the library at Alexandria. 



CHAPTER XI 

EARLY DAYS OF ROME 

Points to Be Noted 

The peninsula of Italy; its location, form, climate, surface, rivers, 
early towns. 

Rome; its location, and the story of its founding. 
Growth of Rome under the kings. , 

A republic established; its government; Horatius at the bridge. 
The two classes in Rome; rights denied the plebeians; their struggle 
for full citizenship ; its results. 

67. The Peninsula of Italy. Turn again to your map of 
Europe, and look once more at the three peninsulas which 
extend from it into the Mediterranean Sea. Greece, the 
smallest and most eastern one, we already know as the 
home of the great men of whose deeds we have just been 
reading. We must now turn our attention to Italy, the 
peninsula which lies west of Greece and east of Spain. This 
was the home land of the Romans, who conquered the 
Greeks and spread their culture over most of western 
Europe. 

In form, Italy is long and slender, and is shaped like a 
huge boot. You will see it on the map, lying in the midst 
of the Mediterranean, its toe to the south and its heel to 
the east. The central position of Italy gave its people an 
advantage over others in carrying on trade, and helped 
them also to conquer and rule the Mediterranean world. 

68. The Climate. To the north of Italy is a high chain of 
mountains, called the Alps. These protect Italy's sunny 
plains from the cold northern winds, while the sea about 
it is warmed by the hot currents of air from the deserts of 
Africa. The winters in Italy are milder, and the summers 
warmer, than with us, so that the orange and olive grow 

57 



58 



OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 



there in latitudes in which our country produces pears and 
apples. 
69. Mountains and Rivers. South of the Alps lies the broad 




Wi'T R I C A^ 






MAP OF ITALY 



plain of the River Po, the largest river in Italy. The valley 
of the Po is separated from the rest of Italy by the long 
range of the Apennine Mountains. These mountains sweep 



EARLY DAYS OF ROME 59 

across the peninsula from west to east, and then extend 
southward to the toe of the boot, dividing Italy into an 
eastern and a western slope. The western slope is longer 
and more gentle than the eastern. It is divided about mid- 
way by the Tiber, the only river, south of the valley of the 
Po, which is deep enough throughout the year to float boats 
and small ships. 

70. Early Towns in Italy. From early times this western 
slope of Italy was dotted with little towns. These were 
always built on a hill, or in some high situation that could 
easily be defended against an enemy. There the settlers 
placed their fort, or citadel, and the rest of the town clust- 
ered about it. The people went out into the surrounding 
country to cultivate their farms and tend their cattle, but 
to this spot they always retreated in time of danger. Every 
town lived more or less to itself, obeying its own king, 
fighting its own battles, and controlling a few miles of land 
about it. 

71. Growth of Rome. In very early times such a town lay 
on the south bank of the Tiber, about twenty miles from 
the sea. It was called Rome, and at first was probably not 
very different from many other towns in Italy. As time 
went on, however, it became much greater than its neigh- 
bors. It conquered first the cities that lay nearest to it, 
then those farther and farther away, until it made the 
whole of Italy its own. After this it reached out and con- 
quered all the countries about the Mediterranean, and, in 
a certain sense, became what it has often been called, "the 
Mistress of the World." 

We do not know just when, or how, or by whom the be- 
ginning of Rome was made; for there was so little writing 
in those early days, that no account given at the time has 
come down to us. But, like the Greeks, the Romans of 
later days made up many stories of the early years of their 



60 



OLD WOELD BACKGEOUND 



city, which they accepted as true and have handed down 
to us. 

72. Romulus and Remus. According to these stories, the 
first settlers at Rome came from a little city near by, under 
the leadership of twin brothers named Romulus and Remus. 
When babies, they had been set afloat in their cradle upon 
the Tiber River by the order of their wicked uncle. They 
had drifted ashore at a place where seven low hills rose 

upon the southern bank 
of the stream, and had 
been cared for by a wolf 
and a woodpecker until 
a shepherd found them. 
When they grew to 
manhood, they returned 
with a band of followers 
to found a city upon 
the Palatine, the hill at 
whose foot they had 
been rescued. 

73. Rome under the 
Kings. Romulus became 
the first king of the 
city, and six kings ruled 
after him. Under these 
rulers the city grew, un- 
til all seven hills were 
occupied, and were sur- 
rounded by a great wall. 
Roman lands outside 
the city were increased, 
bit by bit, through conquests from their neighbors ; so that, 
in the time of the last king, Roman territory extended along 
the southern bank of the Tiber to the sea, and for about 




ATTENDANTS UPON A KING OR CONSUL 
The outer gown which they wear is called a toga 



EARLY DAYS OF ROME 61 

the same distance up the river from Rome. Just across 
from Rome a hill had been fortified as an outpost against 
the neighbors to the north, the Etruscans. 

74. A Republic Established. The seventh king was so cruel 
and proud that the people turned against him, and drove 
him and his family from the city. They then set up a 
republic, and took an oath that they would never again 
allow any one to become king in Rome. They agreed that 
two men, called consuls, should be elected each year. These 
consuls, with a Senate made up of three hundred men from 
the oldest and noblest families of Rome, ruled in the place 
of the kings. 

75. Horatius at the Bridge. The banished king was not 
willing to give up his kingdom without a struggle. He 
called on the Etruscans for help, and their army marched 
on Rome and seized the hill on the opposite bank of the 
Tiber. The Etruscans were just about to march across the 
wooden bridge leading to the city, when a young noble 
named Horatius, and two companions, volunteered to de- 
fend the narrow entrance to the bridge while the other 
Romans tore it down behind them. Though many of the 
enemy tried to overcome them, the' three Romans, wounded 
but unflinching, fought until the bridge began to tremble. 
Their friends warned them to return while there was still a 
way. At the call, Horatius's companions darted back across 
the bridge; but their leader lingered, fighting to the last. 
Then, just as he had turned to cross, the bridge fell with a 
mighty crash ; and he was left, cut off among his enemies. 

The Etruscans called upon Horatius to yield. Instead 
he plunged, with all his armor on, into the yellow torrents 
of the Tiber. Many times he seemed sinking in midstream, 
but each time he rose again. At last, swimming manfully, 
he reached the other shore in safety. Rome was saved; 
and though the war continued for some time, the city was 



62 OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 

never again in such danger of falling under the rule of the 
wicked king. 

76. Struggles Between the Classes. The victory over the 
king, however, did not bring peace to Rome. There were 
troubles within the city itself, and warlike neighbors on 
every side without. Rome had now some thousands of 
men who could fight in her armies if they were needed. 
But the greater number of these men were not allowed to 
take part in the government, or to share in the public land 
gained through war. This was because they were new- 
comers in Rome, and were not descended from the old 
families which had settled the first three hills. They were 
called plebeians, while the descendants of the old families 
were called patricians. 

The plebeians were not satisfied to go on fighting for 
Rome, and yet receive none of the benefits of their success 
in war. At length they left the city in a body and en- 
camped on a hill not far away, where they threatened to 
found a new city. This threat made the patricians grant 
them more privileges, and they returned to Rome. But 
the struggle went on for two hundred years, until at last 
the plebeians gained full rights, and no distinction was 
thenceforth made between them and the patricians. 

Topics for Beview and Search 

1. Find cities in the United States in the same latitude as Rome. 

Explain the differences in climate. 

2. What were the advantages of Rome's location? 

3. Compare the peninsulas of Italy and Greece. Which has more 

natural advantages'? 

4. Read other stories of the early kings. (See Harding's The City of 

the Seven Hills.) 

5. Let some pupil recite the stanzas about Horatius given on pages 

37-38 of The City of the Seven Hills. 



CHAPTER XII 
THE STORY OF CINCINNATUS 

Points to Be Noted 

Rome's wars with her neighbors; her army entrapped by the Aequians. 

Powers of a Roman dictator; Cincinnatus appointed to rescue the 
army. 

His orders; the march; the army rescued; how the Aequians sur- 
rendered. 

Cincinnatus lays down his arms; the American Society of the Cincin- 
nati, and the city named after it. 

77. Rome's Wars with Her Neighbors. While the struggle 
between the patricians and the plebeians was going on, 
Rome was constantly troubled by attacks from her neigh- 
bors. When the city was in real danger, the patricians and 
plebeians would cease their quarrels for a time, and would 
march out together to defend their lands. It was during 
one of these many struggles that a Roman called Cincin- 
natus made his name famous, because of his ability and 
his virtues. 

78. Attack of the Aequians. A band of Aequians, a sturdy 
people who lived on the slopes of the mountains east of 
Rome, marched into the Roman lands, and began to burn 
and to plunder. A Roman consul led an army against them, 
but the Aequians soon discovered that he did not wish to 
fight. They then laid siege to his camp, by throwing up 
earthworks around it, and so they held his army as if it 
were in a trap. However, some of the Romans succeeded 
in passing through the lines of the enemy, and hastened 
to the city with the news that the army was surrounded. 

79. Cincinnatus Appointed Dictator. When the Romans 
heard this, the Senate was hurriedly called together, and it 

63 



64 



OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 



decided that a dictator must be appointed. A dictator was 
a man elected in time of great danger to take the place of 
the two consuls, who so often disagreed that their quarrels 
weakened the army. He had all the powers of a king, and 
as long as the danger lasted, the people obeyed the dicta- 
tor's commands without question. Lucius Quintius, who 
was called "Cincinnatus" on account of his crisp, curly 
hair, was the one whom they chose to meet their present 
difiSculty. 

Although Cincinnatus was a patrician, he was a poor 
man and tilled his own little farm of four acres on the other 




ROMAN PLOW 

side of the River Tiber. When the messengers came to 
announce to him that he had been appointed dictator, they 
found him plowing in the fields, without his "toga" or outer 
gown. They bade him leave his work and put on his toga, 
that he might listen with due respect to the commands of 
the Senate. This he did, wondering what could be the 
message. 

80. Cincinnatus Rescues the Army. Then the messengers 
saluted him as dictator, and bade him come to Rome and 
take command. Cincinnatus obeyed, and went with tliem 
into the city. He commanded that all who were of an age 
to act as soldiers should come together before sunset, each 



THE STORY OF CINCINNATUS 



65 




bringing twelve large wooden stakes, besides his arms, and 
food for five days. When the time came, the men set 
out, with Cincinnatus marching be- 
fore them and bidding them hasten. 
At midnight they reached the camp 
where the Aequians were laying siege 
to the Romans. Cincinnatus first 
went all about the place, in order to 
discover, as well as he could in the 
darkness, how it was arranged. Then 
he drew his men silently around the 
camp, directing that at a given signal 
they should all raise a shout, and be- 
gin digging a trench and driving their 
stakes before it for defense. 

When all was ready, the signal was 
given; and their mighty shout terri- 
fied the Aequians and carried joy to 
the hearts of the imprisoned Romans, 
arms and rushed upon the Aequians, just as the latter were 
turning to attack the soldiers of Cincinnatus. Before day- 
light the Romans had conquered, for the Aequians were 
attacked from both sides at once, and were fighting un- 
known numbers in the darkness of the night. 

81. The Aequians Pass Under the Yoke. After the battle 
was over, the enemies of the Romans were not destroyed, 
for Cincinnatus said : "I want not the blood of the Aequians. 
Let them depart in peace. But, before they go, we must 
have a confession that their nation is defeated and subdued. 
They must all pass under the yoke." He ordered two spears 
to be driven into the earth, and a third one fastened across 
their tops. Under this the Aequians were obliged to pass, 
without their arms, and with but one garment on their 
backs. This was done to show that they were now as peace- 



A ROMAN SOLDIER 



These seized their 



66 



OLD WOELD BACKGEOUND 



ful and subdued as the patient oxen that plowed the Roman 

fields with the yoke upon their necks. 
82. Cincinnatus Lays Down His Power. Cincinnatus was 

not made vain either by his great victory or by the 

honor that was shown him afterwards. On the sixteenth 
day after he had received the command, 
he laid down his power and returned 
to his little farm and his plowing. For 
giving up his power so easily when his 
work was done, he has been as much 
admired as for his success as a general. 
At the close of our Revolutionary 
War, General Washington and his com- 
panions did the same thing that Cincin- 
natus was praised for doing so many 
centuries before. They too gave up 
their places as generals and officers in 
the army, and went peacefully back to 
their farms and shops. They thought 
of Cincinnatus at the time, and they 
joined together to form a society which 
ROiviAN STANDARD they Called "the Cincinnati," after this 
BEARER ^j^ Roman. This society, in its turn, 

gave its name to the city of Cincinnati, in the state of Ohio. 

From this you can see how long a man's name may last in 

the world, if he is strong and noble enough to do something 

which people will be glad to remember. 




Topics for Review and Search 

1. "Why was it necessary to have a dictator in times of danger? 

2. Cincinnatus Avas regarded as a model Roman. What were his good 

qualities'? Why was he admired for laying down his command? 

3. A Roman army was once obliged itself to pass under the yoke. Read 

an account of its surrender at the Caudine Forks. 



CHAPTER XIII 

ROME'S WARS WITH CARTHAGE 

Points to Be Noted 

Rome's wars with other peoples of Italy; conquest of the peninsula. 

Location of Carthage; its sea-power; its rivalry with Rome. 

Genius of the Barca family; Hannibal's oath; Hamilcar and Hannibal 

in Spain. 
Hannibal's plans; his march through Gaul; how he crossed the River 

Rhone; difficulties in crossing the Alps. 
Hannibal's success in Italy; battle of Cannae; the terror of the 

Romans; courage of the Senate; how the Roman generals fought 

Hannibal. 
Cause of Hannibal's failure in Italy; his recall to Africa; defeat of 

Carthage at Zama; terms of peace; Hannibal's death. 
Revival of Carthage ; its final destruction. 

83. All Italy Under Roman Rule. The Romans waged 
many, many wars with the other peoples of Italy, first with 
those near at hand and then with more distant ones. The 
same qualities of courage, discipline, and resourcefulness 
which brought them victory over the Aequians brought 
them victory over these other peoples also. In the end the 
entire peninsula of Italy as far as the valley of the River 
Po was conquered, and came under Roman rule. 

84. Rivalry of Rome and Carthage. Just across the Medi- 
terranean Sea from Italy, on the coast of Africa, was the 
city of Carthage. It was larger and richer than Rome, and 
its people ruled a great part of the coasts of Africa, Spain, 
and Sicily. The Carthaginians were the leading traders and 
sailors of their day ; and they regarded the sea as belonging 
to themselves alone. They are said to have boasted that, 
without their permission, the Romans could not even wash 
their hands in its waters. 

When Rome began to rule the peninsula of Italy, she 

67 



68 OLD WOELD BACKGROUND 

became a close rival of Carthage for power in the West. 
The struggle which followed was the longest and hardest 
that Rome ever experienced. It began in Sicily in the year 
264 B.C., and it continued through three great wars, until 
Carthage was overthrown. 

85. Hamilcar and His Son Hannibal. In the first war, Rome 
conquered the island of Sicily. The Romans were fighting, 
in this and in the next war, not only against the might of 
the powerful city of Carthage, but against the genius of a 
family of great generals. The first of this family was named 
Hamilcar Barca. His son Hannibal was one of the great- 
est generals that ever lived. The part which he played in 
the second war was so important that it is often called the 
war with Hannibal. 

After the loss of Sicily, Hamilcar set out to conquer Spain 
for Carthage. But before leaving that city he led Hannibal, 
who was then only a boy, before the altar of one of the 
Carthaginian gods, and said : "Lay your hand upon the sac- 
rifice, my son, and swear that you will never be friends 
with Rome so long as you shall live." 

Hannibal did as he was bidden, and went with his father 
to Spain with the thought deep in his breast that he was 
now the enemy of Rome forever. He grew up in his father's 
camp, and was his companion while he conquered the rich 
peninsula of Spain for Carthage. Before Hamilcar died, 
Hannibal had learned all that his father could teach him 
of warfare and of government. 

86. Hannibal's Plans. After his father's death, Hannibal 
became commander of the Carthaginian army. His men 
were so filled with love and admiration for him, that they 
were ready to follow him anywhere, and do anything that 
he commanded. He immediately began preparations for 
an attack upon Rome. He determined that this war should 
be fought on Roman, and not on Carthaginian ground; in 



ROME'S WARS WITH CARTHAGE 



69 



Italy, and not in Africa. He had the choice of two ways of 
reaching Italy from Spain. He might cross the sea in Car- 
thaginian ships, or he might go by land, through Spain and 
Gaul. He decided to go by land; but we may be sure of 
one thing, — that he did not know quite how difficult a 
path it was that he had chosen. He was the greatest man 
of his time, but he had no way of learning the simple facts 
about the world he lived in, which you are taught in. 
every day's geography lesson. 



i. 



'W^^tffm 



f*--A ^ ,^^' 



y^r ss^ 




-«<!>!^f' 




HANNIBAL CROSSING THE RHONE RIVER 

87. He Marches into Gaul (218 B.C.). It was in April that 
Hannibal started on his long march. Besides the many 
thousand men who made up his army, he took with him 
thirty-seven elephants to use in battle, and many horses 
and mules to carry the baggage. As soon as he got out of 
the territory that Carthage had conquered, his troubles be- 
gan. He had to fight his way against unfriendly natives in 
northern Spain. When he came to the swiftly flowing 



70 OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 

Rhone River, the Gauls tried to prevent his crossing. How- 
ever, the army safely crossed in canoes and boats, which 
they collected along the river; but great rafts had to be 
prepared to ferry the elephants over. 

88. Passage of the Alps. After crossing the Rhone, the 
way was easy until the foot of the Alps was reached. 
There the greatest difficulties of the march began. The 
way now lay along steep, narrow paths, up which the 
horses and elephants could scarcely climb. Often a single 
misstep would have sent them rolling and tumbling a 
thousand feet down the mountain side, to be dashed to 
pieces on the rocks below. Then, too, the people who in- 
habited the mountains were unfriendly. They stationed 
themselves on either side of the path up which the army 
toiled, and hurled stones and weapons upon them from the 
heights above. These threw the long line of baggage ani- 
mals into great disorder, and the wounded and frightened 
horses galloped to and fro, and either fell themselves or 
crowded others over the cliffs and down the mountain side. 
Again and again Hannibal was obliged to take some of his 
men, and clamber up the cliffs to drive off these enemies. 

On the ninth day after they had begun their ascent, the 
army reached the summit of the pass. After that, they 
were no longer troubled by attacks from the mountain 
tribes. Here Hannibal remained for two days, in order to 
rest his men and beasts. While they tarried there, many 
of the horses which had taken fright and run away came 
straggling into camp. 

After resting sufficiently, they began the descent into 
Italy. New difficulties now presented themselves. The 
way was downhill, to be sure, but the slope was more 
abrupt than on the other side of the mountains. It was 
late in the autumn ; and, since the cold comes early in these 
high regions, the paths were already covered with a thin 



ROME'S WARS WITH CARTHAGE 71 

coating of newly-fallen snow. This caused men and beasts 
to slip, making the descent more dangerous than the ascent 
had been. At one place they found that a landslide had 
completely blocked the path, and it took four anxious 
days of hard labor to cut out a new road for the horses and 
elephants in the side of the rocky cliff. 

Through all their trials and dangers, Hannibal cheered 
and encouraged his army. When they reached a height 
from which the rich plain of the River Po could be seen 
in the distance, he cried out: 

"There is Italy! There are friends waiting to welcome 
you and aid you against the tyrant Rome ! You have now 
climbed not only the walls of Italy, but of Rome itself! 
After one battle, or at most two, all these fertile fields will 
be yours." 

Then the soldiers pushed on with new courage. On the 
fifteenth day after they had entered the Alps, they de- 
scended into Italy. But the army was greatly weakened 
by the hardships of the way and the fights with the natives. 
More than half of the men and horses, and many of the 
elephants, had been lost. The soldiers who remained were 
so worn by their sufferings that they looked more like 
shadows than men. However, after resting a few days, all 
were ready once more to follow their dauntless commander 
wherever he chose to lead them. 

89. Hannibal in Italy. The Romans were surprised and 
dismayed when news came that the Carthaginian army was 
already in Italy. They hurriedly gathered together their 
forces, and sent them on to meet the enemy. Any one but 
Hannibal they might have stopped, but him they could not 
check. He defeated them in battle after battle, and swept on 
in a torrent that could not be resisted. In one battle, at 
Cannae, the Romans lost nearly 70,000 men, including eighty 
senators; and the Carthaginians gathered from the dead 



,-? 



72 OLD WOELD BACKGEOUND 

on the field enough gold rings to fill a bushel measure. 
After that, the name of Hannibal became a word of fear to 
old and young alike; and nearly two hundred years from 
this time the memory of that terror still lingered. A 
Roman poet then wrote of him, calling him ''the dread 
Hannibal," and saying that his march through Italy was 
like the sweep of the eastern gales that had wrecked so 
many Roman fleets in the waters of Sicily, or like the rush 
of flames through a blazing forest of pines. 

The Romans were long in learning how to defeat Han- 
nibal. He was greater than they, and as long as he re- 
mained in Italy the city of Rome trembled. But the Senate 
remained strong in the midst of the public terror. The 
Roman generals, too, though they could not overcome Han- 
nibal in battle, learned to be cautious. They would no longer 
lead their armies out to fight, but hung about watching 
his camp, in order to capture any of the Carthaginians who 
might become separated from the main body while gather- 
ing food for themselves or for their horses. They sought to 
defeat Hannibal by cutting off his supplies, and so make 
it necessary for him to leave Italy. 

In the end Rome succeeded, as she nearly always did. 
"The Romans," said an old writer who described this war, 
"are never so dangerous as when they seem just about to 
be conquered." Hannibal found that he was fighting a 
people who could replace a defeated army with another 
which was just as ready as the first to fight to the death. 
Most of the peoples of Italy, too, remained faithful to Rome 
in this time of trial; and Hannibal was disappointed in 
getting the help from them upon which he had counted. At 
last, he was forced to look to Africa and to Spain for new 
men and for supplies for his army. But when his brother 
came over the Alps, bringing help from Spain, he was de- 
feated and slain by the Romans before Hannibal knew 



ROME'S WARS WITH CARTHAGE 73 

that he had arrived in Italy. Besides all this, the Senate 
found men and ships enough to carry the war over into 
Spain and Africa. By and by, the Carthaginians were 
forced to order Hannibal back from Italy to defend Car- 
thage itself against Roman attacks. 

90. Hannibal Returns to Carthag-e. After fifteen years of 
victories, which had brought the war no nearer to a close, 
Hannibal was at last obliged to leave Italy. The general 
in command of the Roman army in Africa was Scipio, 
called "Africanus," from his deeds there. He was an able 
general, and had just brought the war in Spain to an end, 
where, as he reported to the Senate, he "had fought with 
four generals and four victorious armies, and had not left 
a single Carthaginian soldier in the peninsula." Now he 
was to do something greater still, something that no Roman 
had ever yet done — that is, defeat Hannibal in open battle. 

91. The Battle of Zama (202 B.C.). This battle took place 
near a little town named Zama, about two hundred miles 
inland from Carthage. Scipio had more troops than 
Hannibal, but Hannibal had about eighty elephants, and 
he hoped to win the battle with these. The Romans, how- 
ever, were now used to fighting against elephants. They 
opened great lanes in their ranks, and let them pass harm- 
lessly through, while the soldiers hurled spears and other 
weapons at them, to drive them along or turn them back. 
Then the Roman foot-soldiers charged the Carthaginians, 
shouting their war-cry and clashing their swords against 
their shields. After a hard fight the soldiers of Hannibal 
were overcome. Only the general, with a few of his horse- 
men, succeeded in escaping. 

92. Death of Hannibal. The Carthaginians were now 
forced to make peace, by giving up all of their possessions 
outside of Africa. The Romans still so feared Hannibal 
that, before many years had passed, he was compelled to 



74 OLD WOELD BACKGROUND 

flee from Carthage to escape being put to death at their 
order. Even then, Roman messengers pursued him from 
kingdom to kingdom, on the eastern shores of the Medi- 
terranean, till at last he took his own life to avoid falling 
into the hands of these unforgiving enemies. 

93. Carthag-e Destroyed (146 B.C.). In the years of peace 
which followed this war, Carthage regained something of 
her former prosperity. Then the jealous Romans, fearing 
that the Carthaginians might again become dangerous, be- 
gan the third war. In this they laid siege to Carthage it- 
self, and in 146 B.C. utterly destroyed it. Even the ground 
upon which the city, had stood was plowed over and sowed 
with salt, so that it might never more be used by men, or 
even covered by vegetation. 

So ended the wars with the Carthaginians. Rome had 
destroyed her greatest rival, and the way was open for her 
to seize the rule over the whole Mediterranean world. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. What good qualities did the Romans show in the wars with Carthage ? 

What bad ones? 

2. Trace on the map Hannibal's route into Italy (see p. 92). 

3. Find out how Hannibal used his elephants in battle. 

4. Why had Hannibal counted on getting help against Rome from the 

peoples of Italy? Why did they remain loyal to Rome? 

5. Did the Romans do right in destroying the city of Carthage? 

6. What is the present name of the territory in which Carthage once 

stood? By whom is it ruled? 



CHAPTER XIV 
ROME AND THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 

Points to Be Noted 
Roman territory in 133 B.C.; why Roman rule had spread. 
Roman aqueducts; construction of Roman roads. 
Wealth obtained through conquest; a triumphal procession. 
Effects of the conquests on the Roman generals; on the common soldiers; 
on the Roman govei'nment. 

94. The Mediterranean Becomes Roman. Spain, Africa, 
Sicily, :and the other islands of the Mediterranean, came 
into the hands of Rome as a result of the Carthaginian 
Wars. In the eastern Mediterranean, Macedonia, Greece, 
and Asia Minor soon passed under Roman rule. This rapid 
spread of Roman power was partly due, of course, to the 
superiority of the Roman armies. It was also due, in large 
part, to the fact that the Romans were then the only people 
that knew how to rule well, to put down pirates and rob- 
bers, and to make the world safe for peaceful men to live 
in. The result was that, before sixty years had passed, 
Rome had obtained control of practically all of the lands 
that border upon the Mediterranean Sea, in the East as well 
as in the West. 

95. Public Improvements. In whatever region the Romans 
went, they made aqueducts, built bridges, and erected pub- 
lic buildings, as they had long been doing in Italy itself. 
You can get a good idea of what the Roman temples and 
public buildings were like from the pictures of the Forum 
and of the Capitol at Rome, on pages 76 and 79. The 
Roman aqueducts were great stone troughs — sometimes 
built high in the air, on arches — in which water was brought 
from the pure sources in the hills, many miles away. 

. 75 



76 



OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 




THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 77 

96. Roman Roads. Most useful of all, perhaps, were the 
good roads which the Romans built to all the lands that 
came under their rule. The original purpose of these was 
to enable Rome to send her armies swiftly to the points 
where they were needed. But they also served, for more 
than a thousand years, the purposes of peaceful trade. The 
roads were constructed by placing a layer of large flat 
stones on the ground; then a thick layer of smaller stones, 
cemented together with lime; then a thinner layer of still 





5W| 


p 

'■J 





RUINS OF ROMAN AQUEDUCT 
The water flowed in a trough on top of the arches 

smaller stones. On top of all, blocks of very hard stone 
were laid, and fitted closely together, so as to make a per- 
fectly smooth surface either for walking or driving. Is 
it any wonder that roads built with such care have lasted 
to the present day? Along these roads the Romans placed 
milestones, in order that travelers might know at any point 
just what their distance was from Rome. Where the towns 
were far apart, stations were built by the way, at which 
they might rest and hire fresh horses to carry them on their 



78 



OLD WOELD BACKGKOUND 



journey. Traveling by land now became much easier than 
it had ever been before, and distant countries seemed to be 
drawn closer together, just as they have been in our own 
day by the construction of railroads and telegraphs. 

97. Rome Becomes Wealthy. The conquest of these many 
lands brought Rome great power, and also vast wealth. 
So much gold and silver was placed in the Roman treasury 
after the defeat of the king of Macedonia that never after- 




A ROMAN ROAD ACROSS A MARSH 

ward did Rome have need to raise a war tax from her own 
people. A description of the triumph with which the con- 
queror of Macedonia celebrated his return to Rome will 
give us an idea of the rich spoils that Rome won in her vic- 
torious wars. 

98. A Triumphal Procession. The celebration of this 
triumph lasted three days. On the first day, two hundred 
and fifty chariots, filled with pictures and statues taken 
from the Greeks, passed along the Sacred Way leading 
through the Forum and up to the Capitol. On the next 
day were shown the rich arms and armor which had been 
captured — helmets and shields, gleaming swords and spears, 
and so forth. Behind the wagons which bore the arms 
marched several thousand men, each bearing a basin full 
of silver coin, or carrying a silver bowl, goblet, or cup, cap- 



THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 



79 



tured in the war. The third day furnished the finest sight 
of all. First came the trumpeters, sounding warlike notes. 
Then came young men, leading one hundred and twenty fat 
oxen gaily decorated for the sacrifices to the gods. After 
the cattle marched seventy-seven men, each carrying a basin 
filled with gold coin; and with them came others who bore 
the golden goblets and dishes which the Macedonian king 




VIEW OP THE CAPITOL (Restoration) 

had used at his table. The chariot of the king came next, 
with his armor and crown in it; and following that, came 
the king's httle children, two boys and a girl, with their 
attendants and teachers. Even among those stern con- 
querors, many hearts were touched at the sight of these un- 
fortunate children. At a little distance, came the king him- 
self, clothed all in black, and walking quite alone so that 
all the people might have a good view of him. Then there 
appeared the victorious Roman general, dressed in a robe 
of purple and gold, and riding in a splendid chariot, with a 
laurel branch in his right hand. Last of all came the sol- 
diers of his army, bearing laurel branches and singing songs 



80 OLD WOELD BACKGKOUND 

of victory. Every great conquest made by a Roman gen- 
eral was followed by a triumph similar to this. 

99. Change in Roman Character. Rome could not estab- 
lish her rule over all the Mediterranean lands without its 
making a great difference in the Romans themselves. Their 
great men were no longer like Cincinnatus, who left the 
plow to fight for his country and returned to it when the 
danger was past. The Roman generals now became very 
rich men, and spent all their time in war or in public busi- 
ness. As often happens when money comes suddenly to 
those who have not earned it, many Roman rulers became 
extravagant, greedy, and cruel, and robbed the helpless 
people whom they governed. 

The common soldiers, too, had changed. Formerly each 
man fought in the army without pay, and in time of peace 
supported himself and his family by means of his little farm. 
Now many men made a business of fighting, and served in 
the army for the money and spoil that they got by it. 

The land, too, had gradually passed into the hands of the 
rich men, and a few great farms had taken the place of the 
many small ones. The worst of it was that these large 
farms were not tilled by free laborers, but by slaves, who 
for the most part were captives taken in war. The poor 
freeman not only lost his land, but he lost also the chance 
to work for hire. Thenceforth he must either enlist in the 
army and earn his living as a soldier, or remain idle at Rome 
in the hope that the state would provide for him. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Make a map showing Roman lands in 133 B.C. 

2. Describe the buildings shown in the pictures on pages 76 and 79. 

3. How do modem cities get their water supply ? 

4. Watch the building of a road or street and compare with Roman 

methods of road-building. 

5. Were the conquests outside of Italy good or bad for Rome? Why? 

6. In what ways is slavery bad for masters as well as for slaves? 



CHAPTER XV 

THE ROMANS IN THE WEST 

Points to Be Noted 

Caesar's military training; his adventure with the pirates; his popu- 
larity. 

The i^ublic games; chariot races; wild beast fights; gladiatorial combats. 

Caesar's election to the consulship; he is made governor of Gaul. 

His conquest of Gaul ; revolt of Vereingetorix ; the revolt put down. 

Caesar and the Teutons; his two invasions of Britain; later conquest 
of Britain. 

Roman rule and civilization introduced into the West. 

100. Roman Advance to the North Sea. For about eighty 
years after the destruction of Carthage, the Romans re- 
mained content with the rule of the lands which bordered 
on the Mediterranean Sea. Then they extended their power 
to the English Channel and the North Sea by conquering 
Gaul (where France now is), and began to plan the con- 
quest of the island of Great Britain. The man who was 
chiefly responsible for both of these steps was a great sol- 
dier and statesman named Julius Caesar. • 

101. Early Life of Julius Caesar. Caesar received his first 
training in war in one of those conflicts which Rome was 
now constantly waging in the East. One day he showed 
such bravery in saving the life of a fellow soldier that the 
commander presented him with a crown of oak leaves, 
which was a mark of the highest honor. Several years later 
he decided that he wished to be an orator as well as a sol- 
dier, so he went to Greece, as many Romans did, to study 
the art of public speaking. 

While on his way there, he had an adventure which shows 
his character. He was captured by pirates, and kept at 

Fl 



82 



OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 




THE ROMANS IN THE WEST 



83 



their island home until his servants could return with the 
large sum of money which was demanded as ransom. 
Though his captors were 
desperate men, Caesar 
showed no fear of them. 
He threatened that, as 
soon as he was free, he 
would punish them for 
their crimes. They laughed 
at this, for they liked his 
fearless spirit. But when 
Caesar was set free, the first 
thing that he did was to 
carry out his threat. He 
brought the robbers to jus- 
tice, and even recovered his 
ransom money. 

Caesar had already de- 
termined t o accomplish 
something great, and he 
never lost sight of this pur- 
pose. He soon became 
one of the best orators of 
Rome. He was friendly 
and pleasant to everyone, 
and gave money freely to all who begged his help. He 
became very popular, and was elected to several offices, one 
after the other. 

102. The Public Games. One of these offices was that of 
overseer of the public games. The Romans had now be- 
come very fond of such shows, and they were given a num- 
ber of times each year. The games that the Romans liked 
best were three— the chariot races, the fights with wild 
beasts, and the contests of gladiators. 




BUST OF JULIUS CAESAR 



84 



OLD WOELD BACKGROUND 



Generally in the chariot races each chariot was drawn 
by four horses, and four chariots took part. The drivers 
of the chariots wore different colors — white, red, blue, and 
green. The people took such interest in these races, that 
they divided into parties over them as people now do at 
football games. 

Wild beast fights were introduced into Rome after the 
second war with Carthage. Then the Romans began to 
turn elephants, lions, leopards, and other beasts, into the 
"arena" of the Great Circus, and set men to hunt them 
for the amusement of the spectators. It is said that four 
hundred lions were once fought and killed at one time, to 
make sport for the people. 

But the shows which delighted the Romans most were 
the gladiatorial fights. Gladiators were usually captives 

who had been taken in war, 
or slaves who had been 
trained to fight to amuse 
the people. Ordinarily they 
fought in pairs. Sometimes 
ttoth were armed in the 
same way, with helmet, 
.^shield, and sword. Some- 
|: times one gladiator would 
be armed thus and the 
other would have a three- 
pronged spear, and a net to 
throw over his opponent's 
head and entangle him. When one of the gladiators be- 
came disabled, the fight stopped until the will of the people 
was known. If they held their thumbs up, the loser was 
spared ; if they turned them down, he was put to death. 

103. Caesar's Costly Games. The government was sup- 
posed to furnish the money to provide for these shows, but 




«'■ 



GLADIATORS FIGHTING 



THE ROMANS IN THE WEST 85 

it had become the custom for the overseers of the games 
to add to them at then- own expense. When Caesar was 
made overseer he tried to give finer spectacles than had ever 
been seen before, regardless of the cost. In this way he 
won the favor of the people ; and the result was that when 
he became a candidate for the consulship, some time after- 
ward, they gladly elected him. 

104. Caesar Conquers Gaul (58-51 B.C.). When Caesar's 
year as consul was up, he was made governor of the valley 
of the Po and of the region about the River Rhone in Gaul. 
This part of Gaul had been under Roman rule for some 
time, but the rest of that country was still under the rule 
of its native chiefs. Caesar resolved to bring the whole 
country under Roman rule; and the lack of union among 
the Gallic tribes enabled him, in the nine years of his gov- 
ernorship, to accomplish this object. 

105. Revolt of Vercingetorix. In the seventh year of his 
governorship, he saw a large part of his work swept away 
by a dangerous revolt of the Gauls. The leader of this re- 
volt was a young and warlike chief named \'ercingetorix, 
who was as skillful in organizing his people as he was bold 
in battle. Taking advantage of Caesar's absence in the 
valley of the Po, Vercingetorix sent messengers to all the 
tribes of Gaul, asking them to join him in one last effort 
to throw off the Roman rule. Most of the Gauls joined 
him gladly; and under his leadership they made war upon 
the Roman garrisons and upon the tribes which remained 
faithful to Rome. 

As soon as he heard of this revolt, Caesar hastened back 
across the Alps into Gaul. Although it was then winter, 
and the rivers were frozen and snow lay thick upon the 
mountains, he at once advanced to attack the enemy. 
Caesar's energy and rapidity of movement defeated the 
first plan of Vercingetorix, so he formed a new one. This 



86 OLD WORLD BACKGEOUND 

was to burn the villages and towns and lay waste to his 
own country, so that the Romans could not find food for 
themselves and their horses and would be driven to leave 
the country through lack of supplies. In a single day more 
than twenty towns were burned. All about the Romans 
there was nothing to see but flames. 

Against his own judgment, Vercingetorix consented to 
spare the chief city of this region; and to this Caesar laid 
siege. For twenty-eight days almost constant fighting took 
place between the Gauls who were shut up in the town, 
and Caesar, who was trying to take it. Vercingetorix, with 
his army, had remained outside the town, and tried to 
drive off the Romans. At length, in a pouring rain, when 
the walls were ill-guarded, Caesar captured the city, and 
massacred all the inhabitants — men, women, and children. 

The war now shifted to another region, where again 
Caesar laid siege to a strongly fortified city. Again Ver- 
cingetorix tried to hinder his operations. This time the 
Gauls met with better success. For the first time in his 
history, Caesar was defeated in an open battle, and soon 
after was obliged to raise the siege. This so encouraged the 
Gauls that all except two of the tribes which hitherto had 
sided with the Romans now joined in the revolt under 
Vercingetorix. 

But defeat only spurred Caesar on to greater efforts. 
He gathered together troops from all directions; and his 
soldiers were so devoted to him that they would follow him 
anywhere, and brave any danger to win his praise. In one 
battle, Caesar himself was taken captive and was being 
carried off when his companions rescued him. Long after- 
wards there was to be seen, in one of the temples of the 
Gauls, the sword which was taken from Caesar at this time. 

106. Failure of the Revolt. In the end, Vercingetorix was 
obliged to take refuge in the city of Alesia, which stood on 



THE ROMANS IN THE WEST 87 

a steep ridge and was well fortified. Again Caesar set to 
work to besiege it. It proved to be one of the most diffi- 
cult tasks in his whole military life; and it required all of 
his genius, and all of the courage, discipline, and devotion 
of his soldiers, to bring it to a successful conclusion. While 
Vercingetorix tried to break through the lines of earthen 
fortifications which the Romans had constructed about the 
city, an army of more than two hundred thousand Gauls 
came to his aid, and attacked the Romans from the other 
side. Three great battles were fought, each of which was 
won by the Romans. Meanwhile, the Gauls within the 
city of Alesia had run out of supplies, and faced starva- 
tion. 

107. Death of Vercingetorix. Vercingetorix now saw that 
the struggle was hopeless, and he determined to sacrifice 
himself in order to save his followers from massacre. He 
rode alone to the camp of Caesar, laid down his arms be- 
fore his conqueror, and surrendered himself a prisoner. He 
was the greatest enemy that the Romans had met since the 
days of Hannibal; and the French people, who are de- 
scended from the Gauls, rightly regard him as a national 
hero. But the Romans never forgot, and never forgave, 
the deadly enemies of their country. Caesar took Ver- 
cingetorix to Rome to adorn his triumph there, and then 
the great Gallic hero was put to death in his prison. 

108. Gaul Becomes Roman. The Roman rule was now 
established over all Gaul. Caesar's moderation and tact 
soon quieted the restless natives. In time they learned the 
Roman customs and the Latin language, and were ad- 
mitted as Roman citizens. In the four centuries that Gaul 
remained under Roman rule, it became thoroughly Roman- 
ized. As a result a great part of the language, the law, and 
the customs of France still show the influence of the im- 
perial city. 



88 OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 

109. Caesar and the Teutons. But Caesar had other ene- 
mies to face before he left Gaul. When he first went to 
that country, he found wandering tribes of Teutons there, 
who had crossed the River Rhine under their king, Ario- 
vistus, in order to find new homes. The great size of these 
Teutons, their fierce appearance, and their skill in the use 
of weapons, alarmed many of Caesar's soldiers. When it 
was reported that they were about to march to attack these 
formidable foes, many began to murmur. But Caesar knew 
how to deal with such followers, as well as with his enemies. 

"If no others will follow me," he said, 'T shall go forward 
with the Tenth Legion alone. I know that the men of that 
company, at least, are too brave ever to desert their com- 
mander." 

The Tenth Legion were delighted at their general's confi- 
dence in them, and the other legions were shamed into 
obedience. Ariovistus was beaten in battle, and he and his 
followers had to return to their own country. Later Caesar 
advanced to the Rhine, and in twelve days built a bridge 
over that broad and rapid stream, on piles driven into the 
river's bed. On this he crossed to the opposite shore, in 
order to teach the Teutons to leave Gaul alone. After 
eighteen days of victories, he recrossed the Rhine, and broke 
down his bridge, in order that the Teutons might not be 
tempted to enter again into his province. 

110. Caesar Invades Britain (55-54 B.C.). Another and 
greater exploit was his crossing into Britain. In order to 
prevent the natives there from aiding their kinsmen in 
Gaul, Caesar built ships and twice led an expedition to that 
island. On the first invasion, the Britons met the Romans 
at the shore, and tried to prevent their landing. But a 
standard bearer, who carried the brazen eagle, cried out: 

"Follow me, fellow soldiers, unless you would betray the 
Roman eagle into the hands of the enemy!" 



THE ROMANS IN THE WEST 89 

He leaped from the ship, and the other soldiers followed ; 
and after a fierce conflict the Britons were driven back. 
This time Caesar remained only a few weeks in Britain. 
The next summer he came again, remained longer, and 
made the Britons promise to pay tribute. He did not con- 
quer any part of Britain, and the tribute was never paid. 
But he showed the Britons the power of Rome, and they 
did not afterward interfere with his work in Gaul. 

111. Britain Later Conquered. When Caesar wrote a his- 
tory of his wars, a few years later, he gave the Romans their 
first real knowledge of 
Britain. About a hun- 
dred years afterwards, 
the Romans began the 
conquest of the island. 
Large armies were 
sent over, and the 
conquest was made, 
little by little, from part of the roman wall in 
the south toward the 

north and west. In about forty years, all of that part which 
we now know as England was conquered. Then the 
Romans proceeded to civilize Britain. They built great 
walls to protect the land on the north, and four principal 
roads, leading out from London to all parts of the country. 
Some towns, too, were built, and in them the Roman lan- 
guage was spoken. But in the country districts, away from 
the roads, the Britons retained their own language and 
their own customs and so were not so thoroughly Roman- 
ized as were the Gauls. 

112. Civilization Brought into the West. Thus Julius 
Caesar spread the Roman power into Gaul, and paved the 
way for its extension into Britain. He was the greatest 
general that the Romans ever had, and as a statesman also 




90 OLD WORLD BACKGEOUND 

he showed the highest abiUty and did many important 
things. But we who live in America may think of him 
chiefly as the man who first brought into the lands which 
were to become France and England, the civilization which 
the Romans had inherited from the Greeks, and which 
those lands were to hand on to a new France and a new 
England across the sea. 

Topics for Review and Seaxch 

1. Study the picture on page 82, and describe the Great Circus. 

2. What qualities made Caesar a great general? 

3. Why were the Romans able to overcome Vercingetorix ? 

4. Was it a good or a bad thing for the world that this revolt failed? 

State your reasons. 



CHAPTER XVI 

ROME THE CAPITAL OF AN EMPIRE 

Points to Be Noted 

Failure of the government at Rome; the remedy. 

Caesar becomes master of Rome; his murder. 

The Empire established by Augustus; ''the Roman peace"; limits of 

the Empire. 
What Rome has left us; how Pompeii was preserved. 
The forum and streets of Pompeii; its private dwellings. 
Interior arrangement of a Roman house; its furniture. 
The shops of Pompeii; writings on the walls. 
Other sources of knowledge about Roman life. 
Education of a Roman boy; Roman books; donning the manly toga. 
Unity of the Roman Empire; its influence in European history. 

113. Caesar Becomes Master of Rome. While Caesar was 
absent in Gaul, the misgovernment of Rome by the rich 
men had been steadily growing worse. As Roman gover- 
nors they robbed the people of the conquered provinces, 
and in their conflicts for power at home, armed men fought 
in the streets and blood was shed at the elections. The 
root of the trouble was that the Roman territory had be- 
come too vast to be ruled by the people of a single city. 
Since the Romans had no idea of our modern representa- 
tive form of government, there seemed to be only one 
remedy. That was for some strong man to take control of 
the government and stop the selfish wrangling of the nobles 
and their oppression of the people. 

Caesar had the ability, and the army, and the wish to 
do this. The opportunity came when his political rivals 
caused the Senate to demand that he give up his army, 
and return defenseless to face his enemies at home. The 
southern boundary of Caesar's province in Italy was the 

91 



92 



OLD WOELD BACKGROUND 




ROME CAPITAL OF EMPIRE 93 

little River Rubicon, and to cross that with his army meant 
disobedience to the Senate and the beginning of civil war. 
Caesar hesitated for some time, but at last he "crossed the 
Rubicon" and advanced to meet his enemies. Five years 
of warfare followed, at the end of which Caesar was com- 
pletely successful. He. had not only destroyed the armies 
of his enemies, but he had put down rebellions which they 
had stirred up in the subject lands. It was at the close of 
one of these rebellions that he sent home his famous mes- 
sage: "I came, I saw, I conquered." 

114. Murder of Caesar (44 B.C.). Caesar was now made 
dictator for life, and gathered into his hands all the power 
of Rome. He wanted to go further and change the form 
of the government from a republic to a monarchy — but a 
monarchy which rested upon the will of the people. He 
wished to admit the people of the provinces to citizenship, 
and to bring into the Senate the chief men of the provinces 
along with the Roman nobles. Many of the men in Rome 
were not ready for such sweeping changes, so they formed 
a plot to murder Caesar. As he entered the Senate house 
one day, the plotters closed about him. They drew swords 
and daggers, which they had concealed beneath their togas, 
and fell upon him. When Caesar saw his trusted friend 
Brutus striking at him among ^is foes, he cried out re- 
proachfully, "Thou, too, Brutus!" So saying he ceased his 
struggles, and fell, pierced with many wounds. 

115. Augustus Establishes the Empire (31 B.C.). Though 
the enemies of Caesar were able to put him to death, they 
could not bring back the republic which he had overthrown. 
After he was gone, the quarrels and struggles which he had 
brought to an end began once more. Thirteen years later 
Caesar's grandnephew, Augustus, whom he had adopted as 
his son and heir, became like him master of the whole 
Roman world. From this time on, there was no dispute as 



94" OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 

to what the form of government should be. Augustus be- 
came "Emperor" — that is, he united in his hands prac- 
tically all the powers of the Roman government. He es- 
tablished the rule of the Empire so firmly that it lasted for 
nearly five hundred years after his death. 

116. The Roman Peace. Augustus, was a good ruler, and 
during the years that he governed the Empire the world 
about the Mediterranean was happier than it had ever 
been before. Peace — "the Roman peace," as it was proudly 
called — was spread over the civilized world. From Spain 
to Greece, from Gaul to Egypt, there was no longer any 
war. Travelers came and went in safety on the great roads 
which the Romans had built all through the Empire. 
Farmers sowed and reaped their fields in peace, and mer- 
chants sent out their goods by land and sea, with no cause 
to fear that an enemy might rob them of their gains. 

117. Limits of the Empire. Augustus decided that the 
Empire was now as large as it ought ever to become. He 
fixed the Rhine and Danube rivers as the boundary, on 
the north, beyond which the Romans should not seek to 
rule. He caused a chain of forts to be built between these 
rivers, to defend the Roman lands against the attacks of 
the Germans and other barbarian tribes who dwelt beyond. 
Nearly all the emperors who came after Augustus accepted 
these limits. Almost the only land that was added to the 
Empire after this time was the island of Britain, and Julius 
Caesar, as we have seen, had already prepared the way for 
its conquest while he was overcoming Gaul. 

118. Daily Life of the Romans. We have already learned 
something of the public buildings, aqueducts, and roads 
which the Romans built wherever their rule was estab- 
lished. We have also seen something of their public 
games and the triumphal processions with which they hon- 
ored their victorious generals. Let us now try to learn 



ROME CAPITAL OF EMPIRE 95 

what we can of the ordinary life of the citizens — their 
houses, and shops, and schools, and the training which the 
boys received. 

The roads, bridges, and walls which the Romans built 
can now be traced over a great part of Europe; and at 
Rome a few ruined structures still stand, to give us an 
idea of the grandeur of the ancient city. Moreover, by a 
strange chance a whole city has been preserved for us in 
Italy — that of Pompeii — very much as it was toward the 
close of the first century after Christ. From this we can 
gain a very good idea of the life of the people in a Roman 
city eighteen hundred years ago. 

119. Eruption of Mount Vesuvius. Overlooking the Bay of 
Naples, on the coast of Italy south of Rome, is Mount 
Vesuvius. Today it is one of the most active volcanoes 
of the world; but until the first century after Christ, the 
Romans supposed that its fires were extinguished, and cities 
were built at its very foot. In the year 79 a.d., the fires of 
Vesuvius burst forth again, after their long quiet, and 
wrought fearful destruction. When the eruption had 
ceased, it was found that a thick layer of ashes and mud 
was spread over the surrounding country. As the years 
went by, other eruptions came, and added to the thickness 
of this covering. Then the top layer was gradually changed 
to a fine loam, and vegetation sprang up and covered all 
that lay beneath. 

120. How Pompeii Was Uncovered. For sixteen hundred 
years the buried towns about Mount Vesuvius remained 
lost to sight. Then a well, deeper than usual, happened to 
be dug above one of them, and ancient statues were un- 
earthed, and bits of sculptured marble. Scholars then re- 
membered the story of the buried cities, and began the work 
of uncovering them. 

From that time to this, the work has gone slowly on. 



96 OLD WORLD BACKGEOUND 

Several museums are now filled with the pictures, statues, 
and household furniture which have been taken from be- 
neath the ashes of Vesuvius. The town which has been 
most thoroughly examined is Pompeii, of which over one- 
half has been laid bare. 

The removal of the earth over Pompeii has shown that 
the city had a forum, surrounded by temples and law 
courts, and other public buildings; and this, as at Rome, 
was the most splendid part of the city. It is not for the 
public buildings, however, that we care most; for ancient 
temples, and other public buildings, as well preserved as 
these, may be found in other places. But the glimpse 
which we get here into the private houses of the town, and 
into the life of the people in the streets and shops, we can 
get nowhere else. It is this which makes our interest in 
Pompeii so great. 

121. Streets of Pompeii. The first thing that strikes the 
traveler is the narrowness of the streets. In some of the 
broadest of these, two chariots could scarcely have passed 
one another. The pavements are formed of large pieces of 
stone, joined together with great care; and the ruts worn 
by the passing wheels can still be seen in some of them. 

The houses along these cramped streets were built — as 
are the houses in many warm countries today — about one 
or more inner courtyards, upon which most of the rooms 
opened. Often the street side was occupied by shops which 
were rented out by the owner, and which had no connec- 
tion with the life of the house itself. 

122. Interior of a House. Upon entering such a dwelling 
we are likely to find, on the floor of the entry, the Latin 
word for "Welcome" formed of bits of stone in mosaic 
work. Crossing this, we enter the large public reception 
hall. Here the master of the house received the visitors 
who came to see him. If they came from a distance, they 



ROME CAPITAL OF EMPIRE 



97 



might be lodged over night in the small rooms which open 
off from the hall on either side. The walls of the large 
room are decorated with paintings and drawings, and here 
and there are pedestals where statues once stood. The 




INTERIOR OF A HOUSE AT POMPEII (Restoration) 



floor, all through the lower story of the house, is formed 
of blocks of marble or other stone, and usually these are 
selected of different colors, and are arranged to form a 
pattern of some sort. 

In the center of the floor of the main room is a square 
basin, several feet deep, which caught the rain from an 
opening in the roof directly above. This opening in the 
roof also served to let out the smoke and fumes from the 
fires, for none of the houses had chimneys, and the fire- 
places were only metal pots or pans in which charcoal 
might be burned. 

Leaving the public hall, the visitor comes through an- 
other passage to the private part of the house, where the 



98 



OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 




women and children lived, and where no guest might enter 
without a special invitation from the master. Here is 
another court, with rows of slender, graceful columns about 
j^/jjj it. Opening from this are small, low 
bedrooms, which we should think very- 
uncomfortable ; and here, too, is the dining 
room, where the master of the house en- 
tertained his friends at dinner. Above 
this court, also, there was an opening in 
the roof, with a basin below to catch the 
water; and about the basin, and among 
the columns, there perhaps grew beds of 
blooming flowers and clumps of ever- 
greens. 

Only the ground floor remains of most 
of the houses of Pompeii ; but there must 
have been a second story to all of the 
better houses, and sometimes even a 
third. The upper part of the house was 
for the use of the slaves and dependents 
of the family, and could not have been 
so well arranged, or so beautiful, as the 
lower floor. 

123. Roman Furniture. When these 
houses were first uncovered, many pieces 
of furniture remained in them; but the 
Roman rooms must have been too bare for 
our ideas of comfort. We should have found 
only a few chairs, some small tables, three 
couches in the dining room, some beds or 
LAMP A couches in the bedrooms and here and there 

high stands for their queer oil lamps. The form of these 
articles, however, was often most graceful; and at times they 
were made of rich material and with great skill of workman- 




ROME CAPITAL OF EMPIRE 



99 





SPOONS AND DRINKING BOWL 
FROM POMPEII 



ship. Besides such larger pieces of furniture, many 

smaller articles have been found — among them being 

cooking vessels, vases, cups and fine glasses, combs, hair- 
pins, polished metal mirrors, 
and pieces of jewelry. 

124. The Shops of Pompeii. 
The shops of Pompeii are as 
interesting as the private 
houses. Most of these are only 
small rooms in the front of 
the houses, and are entirely 

open toward the street. Usually each shop displayed a 

sign; the milk store, a wooden goat (for it was goat's milk 

that was sold), and the wine shop a large jar. A snake 

before another shop shows 

that it was a drug store, and 

a row of hams is the sign of 

an eating house. A washing 

and dyeing shop has also been 

found, for the care of woolen 

garments, which were almost 

the only kind worn. Pictures 

on the walls of this shop show 

men standing in stone tubs 

and washing the garments by 

stamping on them with their 

bare feet. 

125. Writings on the Walls. 

In at least one way the peo- 
ple of Pompeii were very 

much like boys of our own 

time. They loved to write 

and draw on the walls of the 

houses of the town. Here we find verses from the poets. 




DRAWING ONTHE OUTER WALL 
OF A HOUSE IN POMPEII 



100 OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 

and there letters of the Greek alphabet, written by boys too 
small to reach high up on the walls. In many places adver- 
tisements are scratched in the plastering, some of them 
announcing gladiatorial fights and performances in the 
theater. Occasionally we find comic pictures such as the 
one in which a gladiator is seen coming down the steps of 
the amphitheater, with a palm leaf of victory in his right 
hand. Such drawings and inscriptions are often found on 
the ancient buildings of Rome also. They must have been 
the work of the common people and the young boys, for 
the writers are usually very uncertain in their grammar and 
spelling. 

126. Education of a Roman Boy. Besides studying the 
ruins of Pompeii, we have another way of learning how the 
Romans lived. Not all orf Rome's great men were generals 
and rulers ; many were writers, and some, like Caesar, were 
great in both ways. Many of their books have been pre- 
served to the present time, and are studied today in our 
high schools and colleges; and from these books also we 
can learn much of Roman life. 

It is very interesting to compare the education of a 
Roman boy, as it is described in some of these books, with 
that given boys and girls in our own day. Until he was 
six years old, the boy's training was carried on at home. 
He was told stories of the Roman heroes, and of his own 
ancestors, and taught by means of these to be modest, brave, 
and obedient. 

He learned religion at the family altar, where his father 
sacrificed to the Roman gods. Perhaps he learned to speak 
Greek at home, from a Greek slave whom his father pur- 
chased for that purpose. 

127. A Roman Schoolroom. When he began to go to school, 
it was necessary to be up and ready to start before day- 
break. A slave accompanied him to the school, carrying a 



ROME CAPITAL OF EMPIRE 



101 



lantern to light the way and watching that no harm befell 
him. The schoolmaster sat on a raised platform at one end 
of the room, with the children on stools and benches in front 
of him. Around the walls there were lyres, or harps, to be 
used in the music lessons, and pictures of the gods or scenes 
from the history of Rome. Above the master's bench there 
was a great stick, and the lazy boys had good reason to fear 
it when they did not know their lessons. 

128. What the Boys Studied. In this lowest school, the 
children learned to read and to write. Instead of slates or 









ROMAN BOOKS AND WRITING MATERIALS 
In two of the pictures purses and heaps of coins are also shown 

sheets of paper, they had wooden tablets covered with wax ; 
and on these they wrote with a sharp-pointed instrument 
called a stylus. The other end of the stylus was blunt, so 
that when a pupil made a mistake in his writing, he could 
smooth out the soft wax with this end and try again. Here 
the children also learned arithmetic. Perhaps the arithme- 
tic which you have to study is difl&cult for you; but think 
how much harder it must have been for the Roman boys. 



102 



OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 



They did not have the plain and easy figures which you use, 

but only what we still call the "Roman numerals." If you 

want to see how much more difiicult it is to use these, try to 

find the answer to 

XXIV times LXXXVII, 

and then see how much easier it is when it is written 

24 times 87. 
Because their arithmetic was so hard, each pupil carried 

with him to school a counting-frame to help him. This was 

a wooden frame divided into lines and columns; and he 

worked his problems with it by putting 

little pebbles in the different columns to 

represent the different denominations. 
After the boy had gone through this 

elementary school, if his parents could 

afford it he entered what was called a 

grammar school. There he studied Greek 

grammar, and read some of the famous 
books of that day, both 
Greek and Latin. Of 
course these were not 
printed books, as print- 
ing was not invented till 
fifteen hundred years 
after this. These which 
he studied were all writ- 
ten with a pen, on smooth white parch- 
ment, or on paper made from the papyrus 
plant which grows in Egypt. Instead of 
being bound, as our books are, the pages of 
these were all pasted into one long strip, 
and then rolled tightly around a stick. 
129. Donning- the Manly Toga. All Roman 
TOGA (Back) boys of good families followed this course 





TOGA (Front) 



ROME CAPITAL OF EMPIRE 103 

of training until they were about fifteen years <3ld. Then 
they discarded the "boyish toga," with its narrow purple 
border, and put on for the first time a toga all of white, 
such as the men wore. This was made a day of festival for 
the family. The young man went with his father and his 
friends into the Forum, where his name was written in the 
list of Roman citizens, and then to the temples on the 
Capitol to offer sacrifices to the gods. After this he might 
be called upon to serve in war, and he had the right to do 
everything that the grown men were allowed to do. 

130. Unity of Roman Empire. For many years, through- 
out the length and breadth of the Roman Empire, life went 
on in the ways which we have been describing. There were 
some slight differences between the various provinces, of 
course, but in the main the law, the government, the lan- 
guage, the manner of living, and the education were the 
same in all the lands about the Mediterranean Sea. Rome 
thus gave a unity to the ancient world which it had never 
had before, and this unity of civilization western Europe 
has never since lost. In this way the influence of the Ro- 
man Empire has been one of the greatest factors in the 
history of the world. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Why was it impossible for Rome to remain a republic? 

2. Why do we call Julius Caesar one of the world's greatest men? 

3. Read the account of the murder of Caesar in Shakespeare's play 

entitled Julius Caesar (Act iii. Scene 7). 

4. Read the description of the eruption of Vesuvius in Bulwer Lytton's 

Last Days of Pompeii. 

5. What studies do you have in school that Roman boys did not have? 

6. In what ways are Roman numerals used today? 

7. When is an American boy said to "come of age?" What rights 

does he then gain? 



CHAPTER XVII 
ROME AND CHRISTIANITY 

Points to Be Noted 

Christianity arose under the Roman rule; its spread in the Empire; 
attitude of the government; of the people. 

Persecution under the Emperor Nero; the catacombs; Christian mar- 
tyrs; Folycarp; effect of the persecutions. 

Organization of the Church; priests, bishops, archbishops, and Pope. 

Why men became hermits; rise of monasteries. 

131. Beginnings of the Christian Religion. For a century 
and a half after the time of Augustus the Roman Empire 
continued to be strong and prosperous; then slowly its 
strength began to pass from it. Meanwhile a power of a 
different sort was arising within its limits. This was the 
power of the Christian religion. It took possession first of 
the minds and hearts of the Romans ; then of the barbarian 
Teutons, who conquered the Romans. It spread over the 
whole of the European world and overcame it in a better 
way than that of Rome. 

Jesus was born during the reign of Augustus, when all 
the world was at peace under the Roman rule. When he 
was put to death, Judea was a Roman province; and 
Pontius Pilate, w^ho sentenced him, was a Roman governor. 
The teachings of Jesus were first addressed to the Jews. It 
was the Apostle Paul chiefly who carried these teachings 
to the other nations who dwelt within the Roman Empire. 
And it was because Paul had been born in a town in which 
all men were regarded as Roman citizens, that he was en- 
abled to appeal for a special trial at Rome when he was 
arrested in Judea for his teachings. 

132. How Rome Regarded the Christians. After a time 
there were little bands of Christians in many of the cities 

104 



ROME AND CHRISTIANITY 105 

about the Mediterranean Sea. It became an important 
question how the Roman government should treat the new 
religion. Usually the Romans allowed the nations that 
they conquered to worship whatever gods they chose, and 
even to build their temples in Rome itself. But there were 
several reasons why the Christians received different treat- 
ment. They held their meetings in private, and they re- 
fused to take part in the public worship of the Roman gods 
or to offer sacrifices to the Roman deities — especially to 
the statues of the Emperors, who were now looked upon 
as gods. The result was that the Christians were charged 
with rebellion, and with plotting to overthrow the govern- 
ment. When war, or famine, or disease came upon the 
people, they were ready to blame it upon the Christians. 

"The gods are angry with us for sheltering those who 
deny them!" they cried at such times. "The Christians 
must be put to death! To the lions with the Christians!" 

133. The Christians Persecuted. Then all persons w^ho 
were suspected of holding the new faith were seized and 
hurried off to the judges. Those who admitted that they 
were Christians were promptly sentenced to death. Those 
who denied the charge were asked to offer sacrifice to the 
statue of the Emperor. In case they refused, the charge 
was regarded as proved, and they, too, were declared guilty. 

The manner of their execution was usually very cruel. 
When next the people were gathered to see the games in 
the Great Circus, the Christians were driven into the arena. 
Then lions and leopards were turned loose upon them, while 
the Romans shouted and cheered from their seats above. 

134. Persecution under Nero (64 A.D.). The first persecu- 
tion of the Christians at Rome took place while Nero was 
Emperor. A great fire had broken out, burning more than 
two-thirds of the city. The Romans blamed this upon 
their reckless Emperor ; and it was reported that Nero had 



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OLD WOELD BACKGEOUND 





















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ROME AND CHRISTIANITY 107 

been seen on a tower, watching the fire and unfeelingly- 
playing upon a harp. The Roman people were very angry, 
and for a time there was danger of rebellion. To quiet 
them, Nero had it reported that it was the Christians who 
had started the fire; and that while it was burning many 
of them had been seen going about with torches in their 
hands, lighting the buildings which had not yet caught. 

This turned the people's wrath from their Emperor to 
the Christians. The cry arose on every side, "To the lions 
with the Christians," and hundreds of them were hurried 
off to prison. Nero invented many new and cruel punish- 
ments for them. Some were covered with the skins of 
wild beasts, and dogs were set on them. Others were 
wrapped in sheets of pitch, and burned at night in the 
Emperor's gardens. Others, more mercifully, were put to 
death in their prison. In later days it was said that the 
Apostles Peter and Paul were among those who so perished. 

It was not only evil emperors, like Nero, who persecuted 
the Christians. Sometimes the worst treatment came by 
orders of good emperors, who were ignorant of the real 
teachings of Christ and believed that the Christians were 
dangerous to the Roman state. 

135. The Catacombs at Rome. One difference between the 
Christians and the Romans was in the way they disposed of 
their dead. Instead of burning the bodies in the Roman 
fashion, the Christians buried them. The early Christians 
dug out great tunnels and caves in the soft rock, and formed 
tombs along the sides of these. In the course of years the 
hills of Rome were mined through and through with such 
tunnels, called catacombs. They still make a great network 
of passages under the city, many miles in length, which 
cross and recross one another, much as the Roman streets 
do on the surface of the ground. When a persecution be- 
gan, the Christians hid themselves underground in these 



108 OLD WOELD BACKGROUND 

streets of the dead, and there, at other times, they often 
gathered together in secret to hold their church services. 

136. Christian Martyrs. The Christians who suffered 
death or grievous injury for their faith were called "mar- 
tyrs," which means "witnesses." Some of the most earnest 
Christians eagerly sought to receive a martyr's death, and 
mourned if they were not granted it. Even boys and girls 
became heroes in these persecutions, and endured death 
without flinching — glad that they were suffering for Christ 
as Christ had suffered for them. 

One of the noblest martyrs of this time was a man named 
Polycarp, who was put to death in Asia Minor. He was 
then ninety years old; and all the Christians of the East 
looked up to him with love and admiration because he had 
been a disciple of the Apostle John. 

When the soldiers came to arrest him, their commander 
took pity on him, and tried to persuade him to sacrifice to 
the Roman gods, and so save his life. The Roman gover- 
nor also urged him to swear by the Emperor as by a god^ 
and to give proof of his repentance by saying, with the 
people, "Away with the godless." But Polycarp looked 
with a firm eye at the crowd that stood by ; then, pointing 
directly at them and with his eyes lifted to heaven, he cried : 

"Away with the godless!" 

The governor urged him further. "Curse Christ," said 
he, "and I will release you." 

"Eighty-six years have I served Him," answered Poly- 
carp. "He has done me nothing but good, and how could 
I curse Him, my Lord and Savior? If you wish to know 
what I am, I tell you frankly that I am a Christian." 

When the people heard this confession they demanded 
that Polycarp should be burned at the stake; and they 
themselves gathered wood from the workshops and the 
baths. The Roman governor was obliged to give his con- 



ROME AND CHRISTIANITY 



109 



sent; and Polycarp met his death with the same steadfast- 
ness and courage which he had shown at his trial. 

Men and women of all classes and of all ages were put to 
death for their faith ; but the number of the Christians 
increased with each persecution. 

"Go on," said one of the Christian writers to the Roman 
rulers; "go on, — torture us and grind us to dust. Our num- 
bers increase more rapidly than you mow us down. The 
blood of the martyrs is the seed of the Church." 

137. Conversion of Constantine. At length a time came 
when the persecutions ceased and the emperors and all of 
their oflBicers became Christians. This happened while Con- 
stantine was on the throne. His name is preserved for us 
in the name of the city of Constantinople, which he founded 
and made the new capital of the Empire. During the early 
part of his reign he had to struggle for power against sev- 
eral rivals. At one time, the story 
goes, while he was marching rapidly 
from Gaul into Italy to attack his 
enemies, he saw a flaming cross in 
the sky, in broad daylight, and on 
the cross were these words: "In 
this sign, conquer!" 

In the battle which followed, 
Constantine did conquer, and he 
believed that he owed his victory 
to the God of the Christians. So 
immediately afterwards, he issued 
an order to stop the persecutions 
and to permit the Christians to 
practice their religion openly and 
in peace. 

138. The Emperor Becomes Christian. After this, Constan- 
tine became a Christian himself, and did all that he could 




A BISHOP ON HIS THRONE 



110 



OLD WOELD BACKGROUND 



to favor the Christian cause. Temples were taken away 
from the priests of the old gods, and given to the Christians 
as churches; and only Christians were appointed to offices 
under the Empire. When Constantine died, his sons re- 
mained in the same faith ; and the number of the Christians 
grew rapidly. At last the worship of the old gods was for- 
bidden by law, and Christianity became the religion of the 
whole Empire. 

139. Organization of the Church. As the number of Chris- 
tians increased, it became necessary for the Church to 
have some form of organization. Such an organization had 
begun to grow long before the time of Constantine. First 
we find some of the Christians selected to act as priests, 
and have charge of the services in the churches. We find 
next, among the priests in each city, one who was styled 
the "overseeing priest" or bishop, whose duty it was to 
look after the affairs of the churches in his district. 
Gradually, too, the bishops in the more important 
cities came to have certain powers over the bish- 
ops of the smaller cities about them ; these 
were then called "arch-bishops," meaning 
"chief bishops." 

Finally, there was one out of the many 
hundred bishops of the Church who was 
looked up to more than any other person, 
and whose advice was sought in all impor- 
tant Church questions. This was because he 
had charge of the Church in Rome, the most 
important city of the Empire, and because 
he was believed to be the successor of Saint 
Peter, the chief of the Apostles. The name 
"Pope" (which means father) was given to 
him ; and it was his duty to watch over all the affairs of the 
Church, as a father watches over the affairs of his family. 




ROME AND CHRISTIANITY 111 

140. Hermits and Monks. Besides these Church ofl&cers. 
there was another class of men who devoted their whole 
lives to the service of God. They were those who felt that 
the world was so wicked that they must flee to waste and 
desert places, in order to serve God acceptably and to 
escape the world's temptations. They were called hermits, 
and in course of time there came to be a considerable num- 
ber of them. Then the practice arose of gathering together 
a group of such persons under a single head, called an 
abbot, and giving them definite rules to live by. The name 
monk was then given to them, and the place where they 
dwelt was called a monastery. In time monasteries came 
to be built all through the Empire, and the monks played 
a great part as missionaries among the barbarian tribes 
outside the Empire. In a later chapter you will read more 
about the life led by these monks, and of the services which 
they rendered to the world. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Read the account in the New Testament of Paul's arrest, imprison- 

ment, and appeal to Rome. (Acts xxi-xxviii.) 

2. Explain why "the blood of the martyrs was the seed of the Chiarch." 



CHAPTER XVIII 
THE ANCIENT TEUTONS 

Points to Be Noted 

Relation of the ancient Teutons to modem peoples; where they lived. 
Their personal appearance; their lack of civilization; meaning of 

civilization. 
Teutonic manner of living; clothing, houses, occupations. 
Battle of the Teutoberg Forest; Teutonic manner of fighting; relation 

of the leader to his followers. 
Their government; their religion; readiness to learn of other peoples. 

141. The New Race. We must now turn to the story of 
the new race which was to accept Christianity, to mingle 
with the peoples of the Roman Empire, and to form the 
European nations that have founded the New Europes in 
America, Australia, and Africa. This new race was the 
race of the ancient Teutons, the direct ancestors of the 
peoples who now speak English, Dutch, Scandinavian, and 
German. 

142. Where the Teutons Lived. They lived then, as part 
of their descendants, the Germans, still do, in the lands 
extending from the North Sea and the Baltic on the north, 
to the Danube River on the south; and from the Rhine 
on the west, to the river Oder on the east. This region, 
in our own time, has many great cities and millions of 
inhabitants; and until its rulers caused the Great War 
of 1914-1918 it was one of the most flourishing countries 
of the world. At the time of which we speak, however, it 
had no cities at all and but few inhabitants. The people 
had just begun to settle down and cultivate the soil, while 
before they had moved from place to place in search of 
fresh pasturage for their flocks and better hunting. The 
surface of the country was still almost as Nature had made 

112 



THE ANCIENT TEUTONS 113 

it. Gloomy forests stretched for miles and miles where 
now there are sunny fields. Wide and treacherous marshes 
lay where the land now stands firm and solid. 

In this wild country, for many years, the Teutons had 
room to live their own life. To the east were the Slavs, a 




AN OLD TEUTONIC VILLAGE 

people still ruder and more uncivilized than the Teutons. 
To the west and south were provinces of the Roman Em- 
pire, separated from them by the broad streams of the 
Rhine and the Danube, and by Roman fortifications. 

143. Appearance of the Teutons. The Teutons and Romans 
were very different in many ways. The Romans were short 
and dark, while the Teutons were tall — very tall, they 
seemed to the Romans, — with fair skin, light hair, and clear 
blue eyes. Also their ways of living — their clothing and 
houses, their occupations and mode of warfare, their gov- 
ernment and religion — all differed greatly from the Roman 
ways. 

144. The Teutons Were Uncivilized. We may sum up the 
difference by saying that the Romans were civilized, while 
the Teutons were uncivilized. Civilization is the art of 



114 OLD WOELD BACKGEOUI^D 

living together in cities, and it is contrasted with the rude 
family and village life of the savage and barbarian peoples. 
Civilization means better houses, better food, and better 
clothing. It means the wearing of spun and woven fabrics 
of wool, linen, etc., instead of skin garments. It means 
better roads and bridges, and sewers and other public con- 
veniences. It also means organized governments and or- 
derly societies, in place of savage independence and law- 
lessness; it means schools, museums, and libraries; more 
reasonable laws, and more spiritual religion. In all of these 
things the Romans were in advance of the Teutons ; but in 
course of time the Teutons were to learn from the Romans 
most of the civilization that the Romans had learned from 
the Greeks, or had developed for themselves. 

145. Manner of Living. When the Teutons first began to 
play a part in history, their clothing was made chiefly from 
the skins of animals. Usually it did not cover the whole 
body, the arms and shoulders at least being left free. When 
the Teuton was in a lazy mood he would sit for days by the 
fire, clad only in a long cloak of skins. When he prepared 
to hunt or to fight, he put on close-fitting garments and left 
his cloak behind. 

The houses in which the Teutons lived were mere cabins 
or huts. Nothing was used but wood, and that was not 
planed smooth, but was roughly hewn into boards and 
timbers. Sometimes a cave would be used for a dwelling, 
and often a house of timber would have an underground 
room attached to it. This was for warmth in winter, and 
also for protection against enemies. Sometimes in summer 
the people made huts of twigs, woven together in much the 
same way that a basket is woven. Such houses were very 
flimsy, but they had the advantage of being easily moved 
from place to place. Often, too, the house sheltered not 
only the family, but the horses and cattle as well, all living 



THE ANCIENT TEUTONS 115 

under one roof. You can see that this was not a very- 
healthful plan. 

146. Occupations. The Teutons gained their living partly 
from hunting and partly from tilling the soil. They also 
depended a great deal upon their herds and flocks for meat, 
as well as for milk and the foods which they made from 
milk. The care of the cattle and the tilling of the soil, as 
well as the housework, fell chiefly to the women; and we 
may here note that the position of the women was highei, 
and that they played a more important part, among the 
Teutons than was the case among the ancient Greeks anc! 
Romans. 

Most of the occupations of which we now see so mucl, 
were not known to the Teutons. There was hardly any 
trading either among themselves or with other nations. 
Each family supplied its own needs by making the things 
necessary to its use. The women spun and wove a little 
linen and other cloth, tanned leather, made soap (which 
perhaps was first invented by the Teutons), and made a 
few other things. But all this was only for use in their own 
families. There were no trading places, and almost no com- 
merce, except in a few things such as skins and amber. 
One occupation, however, was considered good enough for 
any man to follow. This was the trade of the blacksmith. 
The skillful smith was highly honored, for he not only made 
tools to work with, but also weapons with which to hunt 
and to fight. 

147. Battle of the "Peutoberg Forest (9 a. D.). But usually 
the free man considered it beneath his dignity to work in 
any way. He preferred to hunt or to fight; and when not 
doing either, would usually be found by the fire, sleeping 
or idling away his time in games of chance. He was a 
warrior more than anything else; and the Romans had 
reason to know that the Teutons were very stubborn fight- 



116 OLD WOELD BACKGEOUND 

ers. At one time, while Augustus was emperor, three 
legions of the Roman army, under an officer named Varus, 
were entrapped and slain at a place in what is now Ger- 
many, called the Teutoberg forest. The shock of this defeat 
was felt so keenly at Rome that, long after this, the Em- 
peror would awake at night from restless sleep, and cry 
out: "Varus, Varus, give me back my legions!" 

After this defeat the Romans learned to be more careful 
in fighting the Teutons. The Romans had the advantage 
of better weapons, more knowledge of how to fight, and 
greater wealth with which to carry on a war. So, in spite 
of some decided victories over the soldiers of the Empire, 
the Teutons were obliged for many years to acknowledge 
Rome as the stronger; and Roman soldiers were even sta- 
tioned in some parts of the Teutons' territory. 

148. The Leader and His Followers. Among the Teutons no 
man dared to flee from the field of battle, for cowardice 
was punished with death. To leave one's shield behind 
was the greatest of crimes, and made a man disgraced in 
the sight of all. Bravery was the chief of virtues, and it 
was this alone which could give a man the leadership of 
an army. The general was chosen for his valor, and he kept 
his position only so long as he continued to show himself 
brave. He must be an example to all his followers, and 
must fight in the front ranks. When a general was chosen 
by his fellow warriors, they raised him upon their shields 
as a sign of their choice. If he proved less worthy than 
they had thought, they could easily choose another general 
in his place. The leader and his men were constantly 
reminded that upon their strength and courage depend-ed 
the safety and happiness of their wives and children; for 
their families often followed the army to battle, and wit- 
nessed the combats from rude carts or wagons, mingling 
their shrill cries with the din of battle. 



THE ANCIENT TEUTONS 117 

149. Warlike Habits of the Teutons. Times of peace among 
these early Teutons would seem to us much like war. Every- 
man carried his weapons about with him, and used them 
freely. Human life was held cheap, and a quarrel was often 
settled by the sword. There was no strong government to 
punish wrong and protect the weak ; so men had to protect 
and help themselves. A man was bound to take up the 
quarrels, or feuds, of his family, and avenge by blood a 
wrong done to any of his relatives. As a result, there was 
constant fighting. Violent deeds were frequent, and their 
punishment was light. If a man injured another, or even 
committed murder, the offender might be excused, by the 
payment of a fine to the injured man or to his family, 

150. Their Government. Some tribes of the Teutons had 
kings, but others had not. Even among those tribes that 
had kings, the power of the ruler in time of peace was not 
very great. The kings were not born kings, but were chosen 
by the consent of the people. Some few families, because 
they had greater wealth or for some other reason, were 
looked upon with such respect that they were considered 
noble; and kings were chosen from among their number. 
Yet each man stood upon his own merits, too. Neither 
wealth nor birth could keep a king in power, if he proved 
evil in rule or weak in battle. The rulers decided only the 
matters that were of small importance. When it clame to 
serious matters, such as making war or changing the cus- 
toms of the tribe, the "folk" assembled together and de- 
cided for itself. In their assemblies they showed disap- 
proval by loud murmurs, while approval was shown by 
clashing their shields and spears together. Every free man 
had the right to attend the folk-meeting of his district, and 
also the general assembly of the whole tribe. 

151. The Ancient Teutonic Religion. At the period of 
which we are speaking, the Teutons did not believe in 



118 



OLD WOELD BACKGEOUXD 



one God as we do, but in many. The names of some of 
their gods are preserved in the names which we have for 

the days of the week. From 
the god Tyr (Tiu) comes 
Tuesday, from Woden comes 
Wednesday, and from Thor 
comes Thursday. 

Tyr was the god of cour- 
age and of war. The sword 
was his especial emblem. He 
inspired men to perform he- 
roic deeds in battle, and to 
endure suffering without 
flinching. Songs w^re sung 
in his honor, places named for 
him, and even human beings 
sacrificed to him. 

Woden was the chief of the 
gods, and was worshiped espe- 
cially as the god of the sky. Because he controlled the 
winds, it was natural that he should be the god to whom 
those people looked who depended upon the sea, so he 
became the protector of sailors. He was also a god of war, 
and the spear was his emblem. To his palace, Valhalla, 
the souls of dead heroes were borne to spend their days in 
fighting and in feasting. 

Next in importance to Woden was Thor, the god of thun- 
der and lightning. His emblem was a hammer. When it 
thundered, the people said that Thor with his hammer was 
fighting the ice-giants; so he was regarded as the enemy of 
winter, and the giver of good crops. 

Besides these chief gods, there were many less important 
ones. Among these were spirits of the forest and rivers, 
and the gnomes or dwarfs who dwelt in the earth, guarding 




WODEN 



THE ANCIENT TEUTONS 



119 




the stores of precious metals and jewels which it contains. 
Long after the old religion had come to an end, the descend- 
ants of the ancient Teutons re- 
membered these spirits, and stories 
of their tricks and good deeds were 
handed down from father to son. 
In this way the Germans and Scan- 
dinavians kept something of the 
old religion in the beautiful fairy- 
tales which we still love ; and in our 
Christmas and Easter usages we 
find other traces of their old beliefs 
and customs. 

152. The Teutons Ready to Learn. 
When missionaries went among 
them, however, the Teutons be- 
came Christians. This shows one 
of the greatest qualities which they thor 

possessed. They were willing and able to learn from other 
peoples and to change their customs to suit new conditions. 
Other races who, like the American Indians, did not learn 
so rapidly, have declined and died away when they have 
been brought in contact with a higher civilization. But 
the Teutons had the ability to learn from the Greeks and 
the Romans; so they grew from a rude half-barbarous peo- 
ple into great and civilized nations. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Describe the Teiitonic village pictured on page 113. 

2. Make a list of the good qualities of the early Teutons. 

3. Do the same for their bad qualities. 

4. In what ways were the Teutons like the American Indians 1 In what 

ways were they different? 

5. Read stories of the Teutonic gods. (Mabie, Norse Stories; Bradish, 

Old Norse Stories; Guerber, Myths of Northern Lands.) 

6. Read "The Story of Wulf the Saxon Boy," in Jane Andrews' Ten 

Boys. 



CHAPTER XIX 
THE TEUTONS INVADE THE EMPIRE 

Points to Be Noted 

Weakness of the Roman Empire in the fourth and fifth centuries ; divi- 
sion into East and West. 

The Teutons as heirs to the Romans. 

The first invaders ; Goths on the Danube ; their conversion to Christian- 
ity by Ulfilas. 

The coming of the Huns; admission of the Goths into the Empire; 
battle of Adrianople; its results. 

Character of Alaric; his invasion of Italy; the sack of Rome; Alaric's 
death and burial; the Gothic kingdom in Spain. 

Why other Teutons invaded the Empire; its fall. 

The Middle Ages; meaning of the term. 

The Franks in Gaul; what Clovis did for them; conversion of the 
Fri^nks ; extent of Clovis' kingdom ; relations of the Franks and 
Romans; Gaul becomes France. 

153. The Teutons the Heirs of the Romans. Julius Caesar 
and his successor, Augustus, established the Rhine and 
Danube Rivers as the boundary line between the Roman 
Empire and the Teutons. This line held firm for four 
centuries after their time. Then one Teutonic people after 
another forced their way across the boundary and invaded 
the Roman Empire. 

Roman government and Roman armies in the fourth and 
fifth centuries were no longer so strong as in the days of 
Augustus. The Empire was now divided into two parts, 
the Roman Empire of the East and the Roman Empire of 
the West, each under a different emperor. The Roman 
Empire of the East lay east of the Adriatic Sea and had its 
capital at Constantinople. In spite of many dangers and 
difficulties it lasted for a thousand years after the Roman 
Empire of the West had disappeared. 

120 



TEUTONS INVADE THE EMPIRE 121 

The Roman Empire of the West fell completely into the 
hands of the Teutons. They overthrew the government, 
destroyed many of its rich cities, and in some places swept 
away nearly all traces of Roman civilization. On the whole, 
however, more was preserved than was destroyed, so that 
the Teuton invaders became not merely the successors of 
Rome, but also her imitators and heirs. 

154. The Goths on the Danube. The people who took the 
lead in breaking through the boundaries of the Empire, and 
who did most to bring about the downfall of Roman rule 
in the West, were the Goths. In the latter part of the 
fourth century after Christ, the Goths were dwelling along 
the shore of the Black Sea and just north of the lower course 
of the Danube River. There they had been living for more 
than a hundred years, and in this time they had learned 
from their Roman neighbors many civilized ways. 

The greatest thing that they learned was Christianity. 
This was brought to them by one of their own men, named 
Ulfilas, who spent a number of years at Constantinople. 
There he became a Christian priest, and when he returned 
to his people he set to work as a missionary among them. 
His chief work was to translate the Bible from the Greek 
language into the Gothic. This task was made all the 
harder by the fact that before he could begin he had to 
invent an alphabet in which to write down the Gothic 
words, for the Goths had then no written language. After 
his translation was made, the Goths rapidly became Chris- 
tians. Their rulers were beginning to build up a great 
kingdom about the Danube and the Black Sea, when sud- 
denly an event happened which was to change all their 
later history, and the history of the world as well. This 
was the coming of the Huns into Europe. 

155. The Huns Attack the Goths. The Huns were not 
like Europeans; indeed the Goths and the Romans thought 



122 



OLD WOELD BACKGEOUXD 



that they were scarcely human at all. They came from 
Asia, and were related to the Chinese. Their strange feat- 
ures and customs, and their shrill voices, were entirely new 
to Europe. An old Gothic writer gives us a picture of them. 
"Nations whom they could never have defeated in fair 
fight," he says, "fled in horror from those frightful faces, — 




A HUN WARRIOR 



if, indeed, I may call them faces, for they are nothing but 
shapeless black pieces of flesh, with little points instead of 
eyes. They have no hair on their cheeks or chins. Instead, 
the sides of their faces show deep furrowed scars; for hot 
irons are applied with characteristic ferocity, to the face of 
every boy that is born among them, so that blood is drawn 
from his cheeks. The men are little in size, but quick and 
active in their motions; and they are especially skillful in 
riding. They are broad-shouldered, are good at the use of 
the bow and arrow, have strong necks and are always hold- 



TEUTONS INVADE THE EMPIRE 123 

ing their heads high in their pride. To sum up, these beings, 
under the forms of men, hide the fierce natures of beasts." 

156. The Goths Flee into the Empire. The Goths were 
brave, but they could not stand against such men as these. 
They fled in terror before the countless hordes of the new- 
comers; and "stretching out their hands from afar, with 
loud lamentations," they begged the Roman ofiicers to per- 
mit them to cross the Danube River and settle in the Roman 
lands. 

The Roman Emperor at Constantinople granted their 
request; and the Goths might have become his peaceful 
and loyal subjects had they not been mistreated by Roman 
officers. They were too high-spirited and warlike to sub- 
mit to oppression, and they soon rose in rebellion. In a 
great battle, at Adrianople (378 a.d.), they completely de- 
feated the Romans and slew the Emperor. Then they 
wandered about at will, ravaging and plundering Roman 
territory, until the new Emperor made peace by giving them 
lands on which to settle. 

157. Alaric Leads the Goths into Italy. Some years later 
the Goths were under a young and ambitious ruler named 
Alaric, who had learned Roman ways of fighting. The 
Empire in the West was now weak and badly ruled. So, 
as an old Gothic writer tells us, Alaric "took counsel with 
his people, and they determined to carve out new king- 
doms for themselves, rather than, through idleness, to con- 
tinue the subjects of others." 

Alaric set his heart upon winning Italy for his people, 
and hoped to capture Rome itself, with its rich treasures 
gathered from the ends of the earth. For a time he was 
opposed by the gigantic Stilicho, a Teuton general in the 
service of the Roman Emperor in the West. But when 
Stilicho was put to death at the order of his jealous master, 
there was no one who could resist the Goths. Alaric 



124 OLD WOELD BACKGEOUND 

marched upon Rome, and three times, in three successive 
years, laid siege to the city. 

When asked what terms he would give the people of 
Rome, Alaric demanded as ransom all their gold, silver, 




GOTHS ox THE MARCH 

and precious goods, together with their slaves who were of 
barbarian blood. In dismay they asked: "And what then 
will you leave to us?" "Your lives," he grimly replied. 

158. Sack of Rome (410). When Alaric advanced the third 
time upon Rome, its gates were opened by Roman slaves. 
For the first time in eight hundred years, the Romans saw 
a foreign foe within their gates — slaying, destroying, plun- 
dering, committing endless outrages upon the people and 
their property. To the Romans it seemed that the end of 
the world was at hand. 

159. Death of Alaric. At the end of the sixth day Alaric 
and his Goths came forth from the city, carrying their 
booty and their captives with them. They now marched 
into the south of Italy, destroying all who resisted and 
plundering what took their fancy. But in the midst of 
their preparations to cross over into Sicily their leader, 
Alaric — "Alaric the Bold," as they loved to call him — sud- 
denly sickened. After an illness of only a few days, he 
died, leaving the Goths weakened by the loss of the greatest 
king they were ever to know. 



TEUTONS INVADE THE EMPIRE 125 

Alaric's life had been one of the strangest in history, and 
his burial was equally strange. His followers wished to lay 
him where no enemy might disturb his grave. To this end 
they compelled their captives to dig a new channel for a 
little river near by, and turn aside its waters. Then, in the 
old bed of the stream, they buried their beloved leader, clad 
in his richest armor, and mounted upon his favorite war 
horse. When all was finished, the stream was turned back 
into its old channel, and the captives were slain, in order 
that they might not reveal the place of the burial. And 
there, to this day, rest the bones of Alaric, the Gothic king. 

160. The Goths Settle in Spain. Of the Goths after the 
death of Alaric, we need say very little. Their new leader 
was a wise and moderate man. He saw that his people, 
though they could fight well, and overturn a state, were 
not yet ready to take the government of Rome for them- 
selves. 

"I wish," he said, "not to destroy, but to restore and to 
maintain the prosperity of the Roman Empire." 

It was agreed that the Goths should march into Gaul 
and Spain, drive out the barbarians who had pushed in 
there, and rule the land in the name of the Emperor. This 
they did ; and there they established a power which became 
strong and prosperous, and lasted until new barbarians from 
the north, and the Moors from Africa, pressed in upon them, 
and brought, at the same time, their kingdom and their 
history to an end. 

161. Other Teutons Enter the Empire. While the Goths 
were winning lands and booty within the Empire, the other 
Teutons could not long remain idle. They saw that the 
legions had been recalled from the frontiers in order to 
guard Italy. They saw their own people suffering from 
hunger and want. Behind them, too, they felt the pressure 
of other nations, driving them from their pastures and hunt- 
ing grounds. 



126 



OLD WOELD BACKGEOUND 



So the news of Rome's weakness and Alaric's victories 
filled other peoples with eagerness to try their fortunes in 
the southern lands. Other tribes began to stream across the 
borders of the Empire. Soon the stream became a flood, 
and the flood a deluge. All the Teutonic peoples seemed 
stirred up and hurled against the Empire. Wave after wave 
swept southward; horde after horde appeared within the 
limits of the Empire, seeking lands and goods. 

162. Fall of the Empire in the West. For two hundred 
years this went on. Armies and nations went wandering 
up and down, burning, robbing, slaying, and making cap- 




FRAXKS CROSSING THE RHINE 

tives. It was a time of confusion, suffering, and change; 
when the "uncouth Goth," the "horrid Hun," and wild-eyed 
peoples of many names struggled for the lands of Rome. 
All of the Roman Empire in the West — Gaul, Spain, Africa, 
Britain, and Italy — was overrun by the invaders, and the 
rule passed from the Roman Emperor into the hands of 
Teutonic chieftains. 

It seemed that everything was being overturned and 
nothing built up to take the place of what was destroyed. 
But this was only in seeming. Unknowingly, these nations 



TEUTONS INVADE THE EMPIRE 



127 



w'ere laying the foundations of a new civilization and a new 
world. For out of this mixing of peoples and institutions, 
this blending of civilizations, arose the nations, the states, 
the institutions, of the world of today. 

163. The Middle Ages. The ten centuries which followed 
the fall of the Roman Empire of the West are known in 
history as the Middle Ages. They form a bridge between 
the ancient civilization of Greece and Rome and the modern 
civilization of Europe and America. It is this period, dur- 
ing which the modern world was taking shape, that we shall 
study in most of the remaining chapters of this book. 

164. The Franks Settle in Gaul. Each of the Teutonic 
nations helped in its own way to make the Europe of the 
present day, but the Franks were the only people who 
succeeded, on the Continent, in 
building a permanent kingdom 
within the boundaries of the old 
Empire. A hundred years be- 
fore the Goths were to cross the 
Danube, bands of Franks had 
been allowed to cross the Rhine, 
from their homes on the eastern 
bank of that river,, and to estab- 
lish themselves as the allies or 
subjects of Rome on the western 
bank. There they had dwelt, 
gaining in numbers and in 
power, until news came of the 
deeds of Alaric. Then the 
Franks, too, began to build up 
a power of their own within 
the Roman territory ; and 
gradually they occupied all of 




ARMS OF FRANKS 

the territory that 



IS 



now northern France, too;ether with Belgium and Holland. 



128 



OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 



The Franks were yet far from being strong as a people. 
They were still heathen, and they had not yet learned, like 
the Goths, to wear armor or to fight on horseback. They 
went to war half-naked, armed only with a barbed javelin, 
a sword, and a short battle-ax. They were not united, but 
were divided into a large number of small tribes, each ruled 
over by its own petty king. Besides all this, they had many 
rivals, even in Gaul itself. 

165. What Clovis Did for Them (481-511). It was mainly 
due to one man that the Frankish power was not overcome, 
but instead was able to overcome all its enemies. This man 
was Clovis, the king of one of the little bands of the Franks. 
Though he was only sixteen years of 
age when he succeeded his father as 
king of his tribe, he soon proved him- 
self to be one of the ablest, but alas! 
one of the craftiest and cruelest leaders 
of this crafty and cruel people. In the 
thirty years that he reigned, he united 
all the Franks under his own rule; he 
greatly improved the arms and organ- 
ization of the army; he extended their 
territory to the south, east, and west; 
and he caused his people to be baptized 
as Christians. 

166. Story of Clovis and the Vase. A 
story is told of Clovis which shows the 
rude, independent spirit of the Franks, 
and the ruthlessness of their king. 
When the booty was being divided by 
lot after a battle, Clovis wished to ob- 
tain a beautiful vase that had been 
taken from one of the churches, that he might return it to 
the priests. But one of his Franks cried out: 




A FRANKISH CHIEF 



TEUTONS INVADE THE EMPIRE 



129 



"Thou shalt have only what the lot gives thee!" And 
saying this he broke the vase with his battle-ax. 

Clovis could do nothing then to resent this insult. But 
the next year he detected this soldier in a fault, and slew 
him in the presence of the army, saying: "It shall be done 
to thee as thou didst to the vase ! " 

167. The Franks Become Christians. When Clovis first 
became king, the Franks worshiped the old gods, Woden 
and Thor. Before he 
died, however, he and 
most of his people had 
been baptized and be- 
come Christians. His 
conversion came about 
in this way. While he 
was fighting against 
some neighboring Teu- 
tons, he saw his Franks 
one day driven from the 
field. He prayed to the 
old gods to turn the de- 
feat into victory, but still 
his troops gave way. 
Then he bethought him 
that his wife Clotilda 
had long been urging him 
to give up his old gods 
and become a Christian. 
He determined now to 
try the God of his wife, 
so he cried out: 

"0 Christ Jesus, I beseech Thee for aid! If Thou wilt 
grant me victory over these enemies, I will believe in Thee 
and be baptized in Thy name!" 




BAPTISM OF CLOVIS 



130 OLD WOELD BACKGKOUND 

With this he renewed the battle, and at last won a great 
victory. As a result, Clovis became a Christian, and his 
warriors followed his example. But Clovis's conversion was 
only half a conversion. He changed his beliefs, but not his 
conduct. When the story was told him of the way Jesus 
sujffered death on the cross, he grasped his battle-ax fiercely 
and exclaimed: "If I had been there with my Franks I 
would have revenged His wrongs!" 

168. Gaul Becomes France. Before his death, in the year 
511, Clovis had w^on for the Franks a kingdom which 
reached from the Rhine on the north and east, almost to 
the Pyrenees Mountains on the south. To all this land, 
which before had borne the name Gaul, the name France 
was gradually applied, from the race that conquered it. 

When the Franks conquered Gaul, they did not kill or 
drive out the people who already lived there. They allowed 
the Romans to keep most of their lands, but made them pay 
to the Frankish kings the taxes which they had before paid 
to the Emperor. The old inhabitants were now highly civ- 
ilized, while the Franks were just taking the first steps in 
civilization. As the years went by, however, the differences 
between the conquerors and the conquered became less. The 
Romans found that times were changed, and they had to 
adopt the habits of the Franks in some respects. The 
Franks had already adopted the religion of their subjects; 
they began also to adopt their language and some of their 
customs. In this way, the two peoples at last became as one. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. What New England missionary did work among the Indians similar 

to that done by Ulfilas among the Goths? 

2. Find out what you can about Attila, the king of the Huns. (Read 

in Price, Wandering Heroes, pp. 134-150.) 

3. Read the stoiy of the war between the Franks and the Moham- 

medans. (Harding, Story of the Middle Ages, eh. xi.) 



CHAPTER XX 
CHARLEMAGNE 

Points to Be Noted 

Importance of Charlemagne's reign; what he did for the Franks. 

Personal appearance; dress. 

Number of his wars; their results. 

War with the Saxons ; its long duration ; massacre of the rebels ; Widu- 
kind's resistance; end of the war. 

War with the Lombards; why Charlemagne attacked them; their king- 
dom overthrown, and Charlemagne king of Italy. 

Charlemagne crowned Emperor at Rome; date; extent of Charle- 
magne's empire; nature of his emioire; importance of the revival 
of the Empire in the West. 

What Charlemagne did for education ; Charlemagne and the school boys. 

Break-up of Charlemagne's empire; permanent results of his work. 

169. Importance of Charlemagne's Reign. Charles the 
Great, or Charlemagne, became king of the Franks about 
two hundred and fifty years after the death of Clovis. He 
was the greatest king the Franks ever had and the greatest 
ruler of his time. For hundreds of years after his death 
his influence continued to be felt in Western Europe. If 
Charlemagne had never been king of the Franks, and made 
himself Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire — as we shall 
see that he did — the whole history of Western Europe might 
have been very different from what it actually was. 

170. What He Did for the Franks. When we read of all the 
things that Charlemagne did, we wonder that he was able 
to do so much. He put down the rebellions of the peoples 
who rose against the rule of the Franks; he defended the 
land against the Mohammedans of Spain and the heathen 
Teutons of the north; he conquered new lands and new 
peoples. In addition, he set up an improved system of 
government, and he did all that he could to encourage learn- 

131 



132 



OLD WOELD BACKGEOUND 



ing and to make his people more civilized than they had 
been before. 

171. Charlemagne's Appearance. One of the learned men 
of Charlemagne's court has left a good description of him. 

"He was tall and stoutly- 
built," says this writer, "his 
height being just seven 
times the length of his own 
foot. His head was round, 
his eyes large and lively, 
his nose somewhat above 
the common size, and his 
expression bright and cheer- 
ful. Whether he stood or 
sat, his form was full of dig- 
nity; for the good propor- 
tion and grace of his body 
prevented the observer 

ri/^7^ 7- -^7^ p^rV", T ^^f ^ from noticing that his neck 
"^ •< "^ "^.-^'r ~ -"^ >- \ was rather short and his 

person rather too fleshy." 
Charlemagne was very ac- 
tive, and delighted in riding and hunting, and was skilled 
in swimming. It was because of its natural warm baths 
that he made his favorite residence and capital at Aachen 
(the French Aix-la-Chapelle). He always wore the Frank- 
ish dress, but on days of state he added to this an em- 
broidered cloak and jeweled crown, and carried a sword 
with a jeweled hilt. 

172. Charlemagne's Wars. In the forty-six years that 
Charlemagne was king he sent out more than fifty expedi- 
tions against different enemies; and in more than half of 
these he took the command himself. The result of his wars 
was that almost all of those lands which had formerly been 




STATUE OF CHARLEMAGNE 

This shows Charlemagne as he really looked 

Notice that be has no beard 



CHARLEMAGNE 133 

under the Roman Empire in the West, were now brought 
under the rule of the king of the Franks. 

173. Wars with the Saxons. The most stubborn enemies 
that Charlemagne had to fight were the Saxons. A portion 
of this people had settled in the island of Britain about three 
hundred years earlier, but many Saxon tribes still dwelt in 
the northern part of what is now Germany. In Charle- 
magne's time they still worshiped Woden and Thor, and lived 
in much the same way that the Teutons had dojie before the 
great migrations. There were constant quarrels along the 
border between the Saxons and the Franks. Charlemagne 
planned to conquer, to Christianize, and to civilize these 
heathen kinsmen. But it was a hard task, and the war lasted 
many years before its objects were accomplished. Again and 
again the Franks would march into the Saxon lands in sum- 
mer and conquer the Saxon villages. Then when they with- 
drew for the winter the young warriors of the Saxons would 
come out from the swamps and forests to which they had 
retreated, and the next year the work would have to be 
done over again. 

After this had occurred several times, Charlemagne de- 
termined to make a terrible example. Forty-five hundred 
of the Saxon warriors who had rebelled and been captured 
were put to death by his orders, all in one day. This dread- 
ful massacre was the worst thing that Charlemagne ever did, 
and even it did not succeed in terrifying the Saxons. In- 
stead, it led to the hardest and bloodiest war of all, in which 
a chief named Widukind stirred up his countrymen to take 
vengeance for their murdered relatives and friends. 

In the end Charlemagne and the Franks proved too strong 
for the Saxons. Widukind at last was obliged to surrender 
and be baptized, with all his followers. After that the re- 
sistance of the Saxons died away. Charlemagne's treatment 
of their land was so just and so wise that it became one of 



134 OLD AVOELD BACKGEOUXD 

the strongest and most important parts of the Frankish 
kingdom. 

174. War with the Lombards. Another of Charlemagne's 
important conquests was that of the Lombards, a Teutonic 
people who had settled in Northern Italy. Nearly a 
century afterward, an old monk wrote the story of this 
war as he had heard it from his father. Desiderius, 
the king of the Lombards, had offended the Pope, who 
was, you remember, the bishop and ruler of the city 
of Rome and the head of the Christian Church in 
the West. The Pope appealed to Charlemagne for aid 
against the Lombards. When Charlemagne marched his 
army over the Alps into Italy, the Lombard king shut him- 
self up in his capital, Pavia. There he had with him, ac- 
cording to the story, one of Charlemagne's nobles named 
Otker, who had offended the dread king and fled from 
him. 

"Now when they heard of the approach of the terrible 
Charles," writes this old monk, ''they climbed up into a 
high tower, whence they could see in all directions. When 
the advance guard appeared, Desiderius said to Otker: 'Is 
Charles with this great army, do you think?' And he an- 
swered: 'Not yet.' When he saw the main army, gathered 
from the whole broad Empire, Desiderius said with confi- 
dence: 'Surely the victorious Charles is with these troops.' 
But Otker answered: 'Not yet, not yet. When you see a 
harvest of steel waving in the fields, and the rivers dashing 
steel-black waves against the city walls, then you may be- 
lieve Charles is coming.' 

"Scarcely had he spoken when there appeared in the 
north and west a dark cloud, as it were, which wrapped 
the clear day in most dreadful shadow. But as it grew 
nearer, there flashed upon the besieged from the gleaming 
weapons a day that w^as more terrible for them than any 



CHARLEMAGNE 135 

night. Then they saw him — Charles — the man of steel; 
his arms covered with plates of steel, his iron breast and 
his broad shoulders protected by steel armor. His left hand 
carried aloft the iron lance, for his right was always ready 
for the victorious sword. His thighs, which others leave un- 
covered in order more easily to mount their horses, were 
covered on the outside with iron scales. The leg-pieces of 
steel were common to the whole army. His shield was all 
of steel, and his horse was iron in color and in spirit. 

"This armor all who rode before him, by his side, or who 
followed him — in fact, the whole army — had tried to imi- 
tate as closely as possible. Steel filled the fields and roads. 
The rays of the sun were reflected from gleaming steel. 
The people, paralyzed by fear, did homage to the bristling 
steel; the fear of the steel pierced down deep into the earth. 
'Alas, the steel!' 'Alas, the steel!' cried the inhabitants con- 
fusedly. The mighty walls trembled before the steel, and 
the courage of youths fled before the steel of the aged." 

In this war Charlemagne was completely victorious. 
Desiderius ceased to be king of the Lombards, and Charle- 
magne became king in his place. For centuries afterwards 
Charlemagne's successors wore ''the iron crown of Italy," 
which the great king of the Franks had won from De- 
siderius. 

175. Extent of Charlemagne's King-dom. As a result of his 
conquests Charlemagne became the ruler of lands almost as 
extensive as those formerly ruled by the Roman Emperors 
in the West. What are now France, Belgium, Holland, 
Switzerland, more than half of Germany and Italy, and 
parts of Spain, and the former Austrian lands were included 
in his kingdom. (See map, page 136.) The old inhabitants 
of the Roman Empire dwelt alongside the Teutonic new- 
comers, and gradually they came to be more and more like 
one people. 



136 



OLD WORLD BACKGEOUND 




CHARLEMAGNE 137 

176. Charlemagne Crowned Emperor (800). In the year 
800 Charlemagne was crowned Emperor at Rome. It came 
about in this way. Charlemagne had gone to Rome to aid 
the Pope against rebellious Romans, and remained for the 
celebration of Christmas. On Christmas day, as Charle- 
magne's secretary tells us, "the king went to mass at St. 
Peter's Church, and as he knelt in prayer before the altar, 
the Pope set a crown upon his head. Then the Roman 
people cried aloud: 'Long life and victory to the mighty 
Charles, the great and peaceful Emperor of the Romans, 
who is crowned of God!' " He adds that later Charlemagne 
declared "that he would not have set foot in the church 
that day, although it was a great feast-day, if he could have 
foreseen the design of the Pope." Nevertheless Charle- 
magne accepted the new title, and prized it more highly 
than his old title of king. 

177. Nature of Charlemagne's Empire. Though Charle- 
magne, as Emperor ruled only over the peoples who had 
obeyed him as king, still men felt that his position now 
was higher, and his authority greater. They thought of his 
empire as a revival of the old Roman Empire of the West, 
which had come to an end more than three hundred years 
before. Charlemagne's power was thus linked with the ma- 
jestic history of Rome. His empire is called the Holy 
Roman Empire to show that it had the sanction of the 
Church. In the troubled times which followed Charle- 
magne's death, the revival of the Empire helped to keep 
alive the ideas of unity, law, and order, and a strong central 
government, which had been the leading ideas of Rome's rule. 

178. What Charlemagne Did for Education. Besides being 
a great warrior and a great ruler, Charlemagne was also a 
friend of learning and education. There was great need of 
all that Charlemagne could do in these matters. During 
the centuries of disorder and confusion which followed the 



138 



OLD WORLD BACKGEOUND 




CHARLEMAGNE 

This shows him as after ages thought of him. The sword, crown, and robes 

are the ones used by later emperors 



CHARLEMAGNE 139 

Teutonic invasion, books and learning had almost disap- 
peared from the West. Even priests frequently could not 
understand the Latin language in which the church services 
were recited. Charlemagne himself learned to read only- 
after he was a grown man, and in spite of all his efforts he 
never succeeded in learning to write. This made him all 
the more anxious that the bright lads of his kingdom should 
have the advantages which he lacked. He founded schools 
in the monasteries and in the bishops' houses in order that 
he might have learned men for offices in the Church and 
State. But the rude fighting men of that day often looked 
upon learning with contempt, and many noble youths in 
the schools neglected their books for hawking and warlike 
exercises. 

179. Charlemagne and the Schoolboys. The old monk who 
tells us how Charles overcame King Desiderius also tells us 
of the Emperor's wrath when he found the boys of one 
school going on in this fashion. The boys of low and middle 
station had been faithful and when they presented their 
compositions and lessons to the king, he said: 

"Many thanks, my sons, that you have taken such pains 
to carry out my orders to the best of your ability. Try now 
to do better still, and I will give you as reward splendid 
bishoprics, and make you rulers over monasteries, and you 
shall be highly honored in my sight." 

But to the high-born boys, who had played while the 
others worked, he cried out in wrath : 

"You sons of princes, you pretty and dainty little gentle- 
men, who count upon your birth and your wealth! You 
have disregarded my orders and your own reputations; 
you have neglected your studies and spent your time in 
games and idleness, or in foolish occupations! I care little 
for your noble birth, and your pretty looks, though others 
think them so fine! And let me promise you this: if 



140 



OLD WOELD BACKGKOUND 



you do not make haste to recover what you have lost by 
your neglect, you will never get any favors from Charles!" 

In many other ways, besides those which we have men- 
tioned, Charlemagne did a great work for the peoples over 
whom he ruled. 

180. The Empire After Charlemagne's Death. The Empire 
which Charlemagne founded soon broke up into frag- 




-.Mir 
ROYAL PALACE OF CHARLEMAGNE'S TIME 



ments. The western part became France, with its thousand 
years of glorious history. In the eastern part, after a time, 
the Teutonic lands and Italy were united again in a new 
Holy Roman Empire, which lasted until about a hun- 
dred years ago. The parts of this revived empire were 
only loosely united, and during most of the time the Em- 
peror was little more than a figure-head. Nevertheless the 
Holy Roman Empire was an important fact in the history 
of Western Europe. Through all the dark ages when 
feudalism and disorder flourished, it helped to keep alive 
the memory of better days. Especially by holding the peo- 



CHARLEMAGNE 141 

pies of Central Europe together in one family of nations, it 
prevented them from growing wholly unlike and hostile to 
one another. It was in fact, and in an imperfect way, a kind 
of League of Nations. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Was it a good thing that the Saxons Avere conquered by Charle- 

magne? Whv? Read The First Christmas Tree, bv Heni-y van 
Dyke. 

2. What territories were included in Charlemagne's empire that had not 

belonged to the old Roman Empire? Compare maps, pp. 136 
and 92. 

3. Read the Story of Roland, by Baldwin. • 



CHAPTER XXI 
THE FOUNDING OF ENGLAND 

Points to Be Noted 

Where tlie English came from; their liking for the sea; how they first 
came to Britain. 

Conquest of Britain; the legends of King Arthur; what became of the 
Britons. 

The seven English kingdoms ; English local government ; the Witenage- 
mot; classes of the people. 

Disappearance of Roman civilization and Christianity from England; 
how Gregory became interested; the coming of Augustine; con- 
version of the English; what the monks did for England. 

Union of the English under the king of Wessex. 

181. The Old English in Germany. Among the Teutonic 
tribes that invaded the Roman Empire during the same 
period in which the Goths and the Franks were founding 
their kingdoms, were the ancestors of the English people of 
today. They were then called Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. 
For many generations they had dwelt in what is now north- 
ern Germany, by the shores of the North Sea and the Baltic. 
Their ways of living were like those of the other Teutons 
of that time. They had never been governed by the 
Romans, so they knew nothing of Roman civilization or of 
the Christian religion. More than any other Teutons, per- 
haps, they loved the sea, a liking which their situation made 
it easy for them to gratify. They delighted to swoop down 
on unsuspecting coasts, gather what booty they could, and 
then take to their ships again before resistance could be 
formed. A Roman poet sings of the Old English in these 
words : 

"Foes are they, fierce beyond other foes, and cunning as 
they are fierce. The sea is their school of war, and the storm 

142 



THE FOUNDING OF ENGLAND 143 

is their friend. They are sea-wolves that prey on the pillage 
of the world!" 

182. Their Conquest of Britain. So long as the Romans 
ruled Britain, the Old English made only pirate raids on 
that land. But when the Goths came into Italy, it became 
necessary for Rome to withdraw her legions from Britain, 
and to leave the Britons to defend themselves. Fierce tribes 
from Ireland and Scotland then attacked them; and the 
Britons, owing to their long rule by Rome, were not able 
to beat off these enemies. 

Then a ruler of the Britons, about the year 449, invited a 
band of the Old 'English sea-rovers to assist his people 
against these enemies. He promised to supply the English 
with provisions during the war, and to give them for their 
own an island near the mouth of the Thames River. The 
bargain was agreed to, and the English came, under the 
lead, it is said, of two brothers, named Hengist and Horsa. 
They soon defeated the enemies of the Britons, and freed 
them from that danger. Then they quarreled with their 
employers, on the ground that the provisions furnished them 
were not sufficient. 

"Unless more plentiful supplies are brought us," they 
said, "we will break our agreement with you, and ravage the 
whole country." 

The English were strengthened by the arrival of many 
new shiploads from their home lands, and war with the 
Britons followed. It lasted for nearly two centuries, and 
ended in the conquest by the newcomers of all that part 
of the island (England, or "Angle-land") which we still call 
by their name. We know very little of the details of the 
struggle. It was a long and bitter contest, with much fierce 
and cruel fighting. Little by little, the Britons were driven 
back toward the west and north. When captured, they 
were either killed or enslaved. The Roman cities were 



144 



OLD WOELD BACKGEOUND 




MAP OP OLD ENGLISH KINGDOMS 



THE FOUNDING OF ENGLAND 145 

either destroyed by fire, or were left unoccupied and fell 
into ruins. Fresh bands of the English kept coming in, 
bringing their families, their cattle, and their goods. 

183. Leg^end of King Arthur. In later days, the descend- 
ants of the Britons loved to tell stories of a great king, 
named Arthur, who led his people to many victories against 
the English. King Arthur was pure in thought and deed, 
and was without fear. It was said that he was mysteriously 
cast up by the sea, a new-born babe, to be heir to the king- 
dom. When he became king he gathered warriors like him- 
self in council about the famous Round Table, and led 
them to war. He bore an enchanted sword of victory, and 
protected his people from their enemies for many years. 
At last he was miraculously carried away to a happy island, 
there to live until he should come again to rule Britain once 
more. So many stories gathered about the name of Arthur 
that the tales of the Knights of the Round Table are almost 
as numerous and famous as the thousand and one tales of 
the Arabian Nights. In spite of King Arthur — if there 
really was such a person — the Britons were pushed back into 
the mountains of the west. There, under the name of the 
Welsh, they remain to this day. 

184. The Seven English Kingdoms. All of the eastern, 
central, and southeastern parts of the island, however, 
passed into the hands of the English, who set up seven sep- 
arate kingdoms. The Jutes settled in the southeastern dis- 
trict, which formed the kingdom of Kent. The southern 
coast was occupied by the Saxons. Those nearest the Jutes 
formed the kingdom of the South Saxons, or "Sussex." Far- 
ther west were the West Saxons, with their kingdom of 
"Wessex." Just north of the Jutes were the East Saxons, 
in what is called "Essex." The greater part of the eastern 
coast, as well as the interior of the country, was in the hands 
of the Angles, who formed the kingdoms of "East Anglia," 



146 OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 

"Mercia," and "Northumberland" (the land north of the 
Humber River). The names Kent, Sussex, and Essex are 
still used as the names of English counties ; and a number of 
places in the United States also bear these names, which 
were given them by settlers who came from those parts of 
England to the New World. 

185. Governments of the Eng^lish. The local governments 
which the Old English set up are important, because they 
grew into forms of government which the first English set- 
tlers established in Virginia and Massachusetts. They lived 
in small villages of rude and comfortless huts, and each vil- 
lage and its lands formed a "township." The townships, in 
turn, were grouped into districts called "hundreds." Each 
hundred had its own public meeting, called the "moot," 
which decided the affairs of the hundred. The war- 
riors from all the hundreds of each kingdom met in a "folk- 
moot," or meeting of all the people. When the small king- 
doms were combined, in later days, into larger kingdoms, 
these folk-moots became "shire-moots," or county courts, 
and the original kingdoms became "shires," or counties, of 
the larger kingdom. For the whole kingdom there was then 
a meeting of the wise men called the "Witan," or the 
"Witenagemot." 

At the head of each kingdom was a king. Below the king 
there were two classes of freemen — the nobles, who soon 
came to be called "thanes," and the common people. Be- 
low the freemen were the "slaves," who could be bought and 
sold like cattle, and had no rights at all. Then there was a 
class of "unfree" people, who could not be bought and sold, 
and yet in some ways had not the rights of freemen, and 
could not go and come as they pleased. 

186. Disappearance of Christianity. The life of these Old 
English was very rude and simple. They had no great cities, 
and almost the only roads and bridges were the ones which 



THE FOUNDING OF ENGLAND 147 

the Romans had built. At first the Enghsh had no statues, 
no paintings, no books. When they drove out the Britons, 
they drove out with them all the Roman culture. The Eng- 
lish were still heathen, worshiping the Teutonic gods, 
Woden and Thor. Christianity disappeared in those parts 
of the island which passed into their hands. The priests 
were slain or driven out, and the churches were destroyed 
or fell into ruins. The Britons continued to be Christians, 
but for some time they refused to send missionaries among 
their enemies. So it happened that the chief missionary 
to the English came, not from among the Britons, but from 
far-off Rome. 

187. Gregory's Interest in England. There one day a 
monk named Gregory saw some boys offered for sale as 
slaves. Their bodies were fair, their faces beautiful, and 
their hair soft and fine. Gregory asked whence they came. 

"From Britain," was the answer. "There the people are 
all fair, like these boys." 

Then he asked whether they were Christians, and was told 
that they were still heathen. 

"Alas," said he, "what a pity that lads of such fair faces 
should lack inward grace." He wished next to know the 
name of their nation. 

"They are called Angles," was the reply. 

"They should be called angels, not Angles," said Gregory ; 
"for they have angelic faces. What is the name of their 
king?" 

"Aella," was the answer. 

"Alleluia," said Gregory, making another pun, "the praise 
of God the Creator must be sung in those parts." 

Gregory was so deeply impressed by the sight of these 
boys that he wished to go himself as a missionary to the 
English; but this he could not do. A few years later he 
became Pope. He was very learned and pious, and did so 



148 



OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 



much to benefit the Church that he is called Gregory the 
Great. He still remembered the English, and soon sent 
Augustine, a pious monk of Rome, to preach the Gospel to 
that people. 

188. The Mission of Augustine. Augustine, with forty- 
companions, landed in the English kingdom of Kent, in the 
year 597. The king of Kent had married a Christian prin- 
cess of Gaul, and was disposed to deal kindly with Augus- 
tine. But he received the missionaries in the open air, for 
fear some magic might be used if the meeting were held 
under a roof. The monks came up in procession, singing 
and carrying a silver cross and a picture of Christ. After 
listening to the preaching of Augustine, the king said : 

''Your words and promises are fair, but they are new to 
us. I cannot approve of them so far as to forsake the re- 
ligion which I have so long followed, with the whole Eng- 
lish nation. But we will give you food and housing, and we 
do not forbid you to preach and to gain as many as you can 
to your religion." 

189. The King of Kent Converted. The king gave Augus- 
tine and his companions a place to live in, in his capital, 
Canterbury. He also permitted them to repair an old 

Christian church there, 
and to build a monastery. 
Soon the earnest preach- 
ing and holy living of the 
monks impressed the 
king and his people, and 
they became Christians. 
Thus Canterbury be- 
came the oldest of the 
English churches. When 
the Church was later organized for all England, the Arch- 
bishop of Canterbury was made its head, under the Pope. 




AN EARLY ENGLISH CHURCH 



THE FOUNDING OF ENGLAND 149 

190. Conversion of All England. Other missionaries worked 
in different parts of England, but it was nearly a hundred 
years before all England accepted Christianity. Some- 
times, when a kingdom seemed completely converted, a new 
king would come to the throne who would drive out the 
Christian priests, destroy the churches, and restore the 
heathen worship. But the missionaries persevered, and in 
the end the Christian faith conquered. 

At one time the king of Northumberland called his lead- 
ing men together to discuss the question of accepting 
Christianity. One of the thanes gave his opinion in these 
words : 

'The life of man in this world, King, may be likened 
to what happens when you are sitting at supper with your 
thanes, in winter time. A fire is blazing on the hearth, and 
the hall is warm; but outside, the rain and the snow are 
falling, and the wind is howling. A sparrow comes and 
flies through the hall ; it enters by one door, and goes out by 
another. While it is within the hall, it feels not the howling 
blast; but when the short space of rest is over, it flies out 
into the storm again, and passes away from our sight. 
Even so it is with the brief life of man. It appears for a 
little while; but what precedes it, or what comes after it, 
we know not at all. Wherefore, if this new teaching can 
tell us anything of this, let us harken and follow it." 

Then the missionary who had come to them, one of 
Augustine's followers, was allowed to speak. When he was 
through, the high priest of the pagan religion led the way 
in destroying the old temples and idols, saying: "The 
more diligently I sought after the truth in that worship, 
the less I found it." 

191. Work of the Monks. Most of these early missionaries, 
like Augustine and his companions, were monks. They not 
only taught the people the truths of the Christian religion. 



150 OLD WOELD BACKGROUND 

but they taught them higher standards of living. Their 
monastery farms became models of agriculture for all the 
country. They established schools in the monasteries, and 
some of the English learned to read and write. All their 
books were in Latin, for that was the language used by the 
Church in its services. The result was that few persons 
could read them. It was a great thing, nevertheless, that 
there should be at least some men in every village who 
knew the language and something of the literature of 
ancient Rome. It meant that the English as a people had 
ceased to be barbarians, and had begun to be civilized, like 
the Romans who preceded them. 

192. England United Under One King. At first the seven 
kingdoms of the English were often at war with one an- 
other. Then gradually the stronger kingdoms began to 
gain power over the weaker ones. Finally, at the beginning 
of the ninth century, shortly after the time of Charlemagne, 
the king of Wessex was able to bring all the other king- 
doms under his rule, and establish a single kingdom for all 
England. But perhaps this union would not have proved 
permanent, had it not been for the fact that the English 
were soon exposed to the dangers of invasion, from enemies 
as rude and as warlike as they themselves had been when 
they first came to the island, nearly four hundred years 
before. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Read an account of the early Britons, and their conquest by the 

Romans. (Harding, Story of England, chapters ii, iii.) 

2. How did the English conquest of Britain differ from the Roman ? 

3. Read some stories of King Arthur and his Round Table. (Maitland, 

Heroes of Chivalry.) 

4. Read the story of Beowulf. (Child, Beoividf.) 

5. Find out what you can about the English monk, Bede. (Harding, 

Story of England, p. 37.) 



CHAPTER XXII 
KING ALFRED AND THE NORTHMEN 

Points to Be Noted 

Where the Northmen (or Danes) came from; founding of Normandy; 
their voyages to the West : discovei-y of Vinland ; what Leif Erics- 
son had really discovered. 

Danish attacks upon England ; by whom the Danish conquests were 
stopped. 

Youth of Alfred ; dates of his reign ; his victory over the Danes ; the 
treaty of peace; results. 

What Alfred did for England. 

193. Deeds of the Northmen. The newcomers who invaded 
England were the Northmen, or the ''Danes," as the English 
called them. They were inhabitants of the northern lands 
which now form the kingdoms of Denmark, Norway, and 
Sweden. They were Teutonic, like the English; and like 
the ancestors of the English they were great pirates and 
sea-rovers. In the time of Charlemagne they began to 
swarm forth from their northern homes and overrun all 
western Europe. In France, after repeated attacks through- 
out the ninth century, they at last settled down in a large 
district about the mouth of the River Seine, which was given 
them by the French king. There they became known as 
the "Normans," and the name Normandy is still given to 
that district. 

Nor did they stop with Europe. For us, what they did 
outside of Europe is even more interesting. If you will 
look on a globe, you will see that the great island of Ice- 
land, which lies in the North Atlantic Ocean, is only about 
seven hundred miles west of Norway, and that Greenland 
lies only about three hundred miles beyond that. Both of 
these lands were discovered by the Northmen "vikings," 

151 



152 OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 

or sea-rovers; and in both they made settlements. Then 

came what for us is the most interesting discovery of all. 

194. Leif Ericsson Discovers America (1000). In the year 

1000, one of these Greenland settlers, named Leif Ericsson, 



REMAINS OF A VIKING SHIP F'OUND IN SWEDEN 

was returning from a visit to Norway. The viking ships 
were really only large boats, and this one was so tossed 
about by storms that it was driven some hundreds of miles 
west and south of Greenland. There Leif found a new land, 
to which he gave the name Vinland, because of the wild 
grapes or berries which he found in it. The report which 
he brought to Greenland of this new land seemed so favor- 
able that some of the Northmen went there and formed a 
settlement. But fierce battles occurred with the natives, 
and soon the settlers returned to Greenland. After a while, 
except for the accounts preserved in the "sagas," or stories 
of the time, all knowledge of Vinland was lost. There can 
be no doubt, however, that what Leif Ericsson had dis- 
covered was some part of the continent of North America, 
and that these viking Northmen were really the first dis- 
coverers and settlers of the New World. 



ALFRED AND THE NORTHMEN 153 

195. The Danes Attack England. In the story which you 
are now reading, however, we are most concerned with what 
the Northmen, or "Danes," did in England. They first be- 
gan to plunder the coasts of that land nearly a hundred 
years before they discovered Iceland, and more than two 
hundred years before they found Vinland. In the begin- 
ning their attacks on England were like those which the 
English themselves had made when they first began to come 
to that land. Then, like the English again, they began to 
come in armies, in order to make conquests and set up 
kingdoms of their own. The Danes were still heathen, as 
the English had been when they first came, so they de- 
stroyed and plundered the monasteries and churches, and 
slew or drove out the priests and monks. In this way, 
little by little, the Danes overran the greater part of Eng- 
land, until all had been taken except Wessex itself. 

196. Youth of Alfred. Here they were met by the young 
King Alfred — "the wisest, best, and greatest king that ever 
reigned in England" — and their advance was checked and 
their conquests stopped. When very young, Alfred had ac- 
companied his father to Rome, and spent a year of two 
there. At home, his mother trained her children carefully, 
and encouraged them to study. One day she said to them: 

"Do you see this little book, with its clear black writing, 
and the beautiful letter at the beginning, painted in red, 
blue, and gold? It shall belong to the one who first learns 
its songs." 

"Mother," said Alfred, "will you really give that beautiful 
book to me if I learn it first?" 

"Yes," was the reply, "I really will." 

Alfred took the book to his teacher, and soon learned to 
repeat the verses; and thus he earned the coveted prize. 
This story shows us his quickness of mind, and his interest 
in learning, which made him noted in after years. 



154 OLD WOELD BACKGROUND 

197. Warfare with the Danes. When Alfred grew to man- 
hood, he found stern work to do, for the Danes were ad- 
vancing into Wessex. His older brother Ethelred was king 
of Wessex, and Alfred worked loyally to help him. A his- 
torian of that time writes of a certain year that "nine gen- 
eral battles were fought this year south of the River 
Thames; besides which Alfred, the king's brother, and 
single rulers of shires and king's thanes oftentimes made 
attacks on the Danes, which are not counted." 

In one of these battles, Ethelred was wounded so badly 
that he died, and Alfred became king in his place. Alfred 
ruled for thirty years, from 871 to 901. At first his atten- 
tion was given chiefly to the Danes. Again and again they 
made peace, and soon broke it. The Danish army spent 
the winter in fortified camps in the land ; but the English, 
when the summer's fighting was done, scattered to their 
homes, to care for their families and prepare their crops. 

During one such winter, Alfred sought refuge in a small 
fortified island called Athelney, amid the swamps of Wes- 
sex. Afterwards the people told stories of how, while wan- 
dering alone in these regions, he was sheltered in a herds- 
man's hut, and was scolded by the herdsman's wife for al- 
lowing some coarse cakes to burn, which she had told him to 
watch. An old song represents the woman as saying to the 
king, whom she did not know: 

"Can't you mind the cakes, man? 

And don't you see them burn? 
I'm bound you'll eat them fast enough, 

As soon as 'tis the turn." 

Another story tells how he went into the Danish camp, 
in disguise as a minstrel or wandering singer, in order to 
get news of the enemy's plans ; and how the Danes were so 
pleased with his singing that he had difficulty in getting 
away again. 



ALFRED AND THE NORTHMEN 



155 



198. Alfred's Victory and Treaty. When the hardships of 
that winter were over, Alfred gathered his army together 
and attacked the Danes. He defeated them badly, and 
drove them into their fortified camp. There he besieged 
them for fourteen days; and as they were now separated 
from their ships, and could get no supplies, they agreed to 
make peace. By a revision of this treaty, a few years later, 
the Danes were to have all the country of England north' 





AN ENGLISH KING 
Tenth century 



WOMAN'S COSTUME 
Tenth century 



and west of the Thames River and the old Roman road 
called Watling Street, which ran from London to Chester. 
Only the country south of that line, including London, re- 
mained to the English under Alfred's rule. 

199. The Danelaw. The country which the Danes ruled 
was known as the "Danelaw." There thej^ settled down 
and became tillers of the soil, just as the English had done 
four centuries earlier. Before many generations had 
passed, they all became Christians and blended with their 



156 



OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 



English neighbors. But to this day northern England 
shows some features which remind us that once it was ruled 
by these rude, freedom-loving Danes. For example, we find 
there several hundred villages and towns with names which 
end in the syllable "-by," (as in "Derby"). This was the 
Danish word for "town," and corresponds to the old Eng- 
lish "-ton" or "-ham," which we find so frequently on the 
map of southern England. 

200. Alfred Rebuilds London. After the treaty with the 
Danes, Wessex for some time enjoyed peace, and Al- 
fred had opportunity to repair the 
damages done by war. Among other 
things, he fortified and partly rebuilt 
the city of London. For some time 
it had been in the hands of the Danes, 
but it was now restored to the Eng- 
lish. London was located at the low- 
est point on the Thames at which a 
bridge could be built, or at which 




Side view 

GOLD JEWEL OF ALFRED 

Found at Athelney 




Front view 



merchants could find solid ground for landing goods from 
their ships. It was already an important place in Roman 
days, and it now became the chief city of England. Long 
afterward, when ocean commerce developed, its nearness 
to the sea helped to make it the greatest city in the 
world. But for several centuries after Alfred, its citizens 
were as much interested in agriculture as in carrying on 
their small trades, and commerce on a large scale was 
unknown. 



ALFRED AND THE NORTHMEN 157 

201. Alfred Strengthens the Government. Alfred saw that 
if the English were to resist invaders successfully, they must 
put their trust in the sea. Accordingly, he had a large num- 
ber of ships built, after his own pattern, making them twice 
as large as those of the Danes. These proved very useful 
when the Danes renewed their attacks. He also improved 
the army, and made some changes in the government. To 
make it easier to find out what the law was, he collected 
and revised the old laws of England. But he did this work 
modestly, and without reckless change. "I, Alfred," he 
wrote, ''gathered these laws together, and commanded 
many of them to be written which our forefathers held, 
those which seemed to me good. And 
many of those which seemed to me not 
good, I rejected, and in other wise com- 
manded them to be held. For I durst 
not venture to set down in writing 
much of my own, for it was unknown 
to me what of it would please those 
who should come after us." ^^^f^ ^^ntern 

202. He Aids Industry and Learning. 

Alfred also encouraged workmen of all sorts. He brought 
many skilled men to England from foreign countries; and 
he himself could show his gold workers, and other artisans, 
how to do their work. He invented a method of counting 
the hours, by means of candles which were made so that 
six of them would burn just twenty-four hours. He also 
invented a lantern, with transparent sides made of horn 
(for glass was scarce) to keep drafts away from the candle 
and make it burn better. His mind was constantly at work, 
seeking to better the condition of his country. But Alfred 
thought none of these things could help his people much un- 
less they improved in mind and spirit. He lamented their 
growing ignorance, through the destruction of the monas- 




158 



OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 



teries, with their schools and libraries. ''Formerly," said 
he, "foreigners came to this land in search of wisdom and 
instruction; but we should now have to get teachers from 
abroad, if we would have them." Accordingly he invited 
many learned men to come to his kingdom to help instruct 
his people. 




HOUSE OF AN ENGLISH NOBLE (Eleventh Century) 
From an old manuscript. The lord and his lady are giving alms to the poor 

Alfred thought that the greatest need of all was books 
which his people could read — books in English, and not 
Latin. 

"I wondered extremely," he said, "that the good and wise 
men who were formerly all over England, and had perfectly 
learned all the books, did not wish to translate them into 
their own tongue." 

He set himself to put into English some of the best books. 
First came a history of the world, and to this he added his 
own account of two voyages into the northern seas, made 
by Danes whom he had invited to England. Then came a 
history of England by a famous monk, named Bede ; a book 
of religious instruction by Pope Gregory the Great ; finally 



ALFRED AND THE NORTHMEN 159 

a book on philosophy, in which Alfred gave many of his 
own most serious thoughts. All these works are still pre- 
served; but our language has changed so much since 
Alfred's day that they are now like books in a foreign 
tongue. 

203. Why He Is Called "the Great." Since Alfred's death, 
all English-speaking people have cherished his memory, 
and we now call him "Alfred the Great." He was a brave 
warrior, a wise lawmaker, a patient teacher, and a watch- 
ful guardian of his people. Above all, he was a true and 
pure man, loving his family and training his children with 
great care. The secret of his success is told in his own 
words : 

"To sum up all," he said, "it has ever been my desire to 
live worthily while I am alive, and after my death to leave 
to those that should come after me my memory in good 
works." 

Alfred's work was indeed good, for he saved England 
from being completely conquered by the Danes. Because 
he kept his courage at the trying time, his own kingdom 
was preserved, and the Danes were settled beyond the 
Thames, there gradually to become Englishmen. Because 
he was wise and patient, he made his kingdom strong, so 
that his descendants were able, little by little, to regain all 
that the Danes had taken, and to become again, in later 
years, kings of all England. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Describe the life of the "vikings," and tell the things they did. 

2. Read "The Saga of the Land of Grapes" (Price, Wandering Heroes, 

p. 151). 

3. Why did the discovery of America by the Northmen have no im- 

portant results? 

4. Write a brief account of Alfred's life and character. 

5. Make a list of the things that Alfred did for England. 



CHAPTER XXIII 
THE NORMANS CONQUER ENGLAND 

Points to Be Noted 

New troubles from the Danes; rule of Canute; Edward the Confessor. 
Character of the Normans ; Duke William's claim to the English throne ; 

his invasion of England; battle of Hastings; date; importance of 

the Norman Conquest. 
The feudal system established in England; meaning of fief, vassal, 

villein, homage, fealty ; Avhat the lord owed to the vassal ; what 

the vassal owed to the lord. 
How William prevented his lords from becoming too powerful; how 

the Norman Conquest benefited England. 

204. Weakness of England. Alfred's descendants soon suc- 
ceeded in reconquering the Danelaw, but this was far from 
being the end of England's troubles with the Northmen. 
About eighty years after the death of Alfred, while a weak 
king was on the throne, new swarms of Danes began to 
come into England; and after a number of years of strug- 
gling, the Danish king Canute added England to his king- 
doms of Denmark and Norway. He was a just and Chris- 
tian king, and ruled England as though he had been an 
Englishinan himself. Soon after his death, the old Eng- 
lish line of kings was restored in the person of Edward the 
Confessor. Unfortunately, he was a weak ruler, and he died 
without a son to succeed him. In these circumstances, the 
ruler of those Northmen who had settled across the Channel 
in France, more than a hundred years before, prepared in 
his turn to seize the English throne. 

205. Strengfth of the Normans. These Northmen who were 
settled in France we call ''Normans," to distinguish them 
from those who came direct from the Scandinavian lands. 

160 



NORMANS CONQUER ENGLAND 



161 



Since settling in France they had progressed very rapidly. 
They had laid aside their old heathen religion and become 
Christians; and they had also laid aside their old speech 
and native customs. In less than a hundred years they had 
become as good Frenchmen, in speech and everything else, 
as could be found in that kingdom. About the only things 
which distinguished the Normans from the other French 
were their greater energy, their skill in building and in gov- 
ernment, and their fondness for the sea and for adventure. 
206. The Normans Invade England. Their ruler, or duke, 
when King Edward died, was named William, and because 




WILLIAM OF NORMANDY LANDING IN ENGLAND 

of the great deeds which he performed we call him William 
the Conqueror. From an early age he had shown remark- 
able warlike power and ability to rule. He claimed the 
English throne chiefly on the ground that King Edward had 
promised it to him ; and, in spite of the fact that the Eng- 
lish had now set up an English nobleman named Harold in 
place of Edward, Duke William gathered together his forces, 
and in the year 1066 invaded England. 

On leaping from his ship, William stumbled and fell flat 
upon his face. His followers cried out at this as a bad omen, 



162 



OLD WOELD BACKGKOUXD 




but William's presence of mind prevented any injurious 
effect. "By the splendor of God," he cried, grasping a hand- 
ful of earth, '*I hold England in my hands!" 

207. Battle of Hastings (1066). Harold meanwhile had 
gathered his forces and marched to meet William, whom he 

found near the town of Hast- 
ings. There the decisive bat- 
tle took place. Harold's men 
were on foot, and carried light 
javelins for hurling, and 
swords or battle-axes for strik- 
ing. They were drawn up so 
that their shields overlapped 
one another, making a solid 
wall of defense. William had 
two kinds of warriors — cross- 
bowmen on foot, who were 
placed at the front; and be- 
hind these, the knights on horseback, wearing iron caps and 
rude coats of mail, and carrying swords and strong lances. 
One of the Norman knights asked that he might strike the 
first blow. When this was granted, he rode forward, tossing 
his sword in the air and catching it, and singing gaily an old 
song about the deeds of a great warrior named Roland. Two 
Englishmen fell by his hand before he himself was slain. 
Then the battle began in earnest, and raged all day. In 
spite of their heavy horsemen, the Normans were unable to 
break the English line. Three horses w^re killed under 
William, but he received no injury. Once the cry went 
forth, "The duke is down!" and the Normans began to give 
way. But William tore off his helmet, that they might bet- 
ter see his face, and cried : 'T live, and by God's help shall 
have the victory!" 

At length, a portion of the Norman troops turned to flee, 



WILLIAM I, THE CONQUEROR 



NORMANS CONQUER ENGLAND 



163 



and some of the English, disobeying Harold's orders, left 
their line to go in pursuit. These English were then easily 
cut off and destroyed. William took a hint from this, and 
ordered a pretended flight of all the Normans. Large num- 
bers of the English followed, and the Normans turned and 
cut them down. 



D>R£XMNTERF6C 
TVSjEST 




DEATH OF HAROLD 
Harold is the second figure from the left. The inscription (in Latin) reads: 
"Harold the king is slain." To his right is the banner of Wessex. Note that 
the armor consisted of discs of metal fastened to leather cloth. This picture 
is taken from a great piece of tapestry embroidered by William's queen to 
illustrate the conquest of England. 

But Harold and his two brothers, together with the best 
troops, still stood firm, and swung their battle-axes beneath 
the Golden Dragon banner of Wessex. At last an arrow, 
shot into the air by William's order, struck Harold in the 
eye, and he fell. The English then fled — all except a few, 
who fought on until they were killed. 

208. William Becomes King. Thus William and his Nor- 
mans conquered England. No further resistance was pos- 
sible. Marching slowly toward London, he was there ac- 
knowledged king; and on Christmas day he put on the 
English crown. 

The victory of the Normans was a turning point in Eng- 
lish history. Britons, Romans, English, Danes, and Nor- 



164 OLD WORLD BACKGEOUND 

mans, — all made their conquests and left their mark on the 
life of the island. This, however, is the last of the armed 
invasions. Never afterward does a foreign foe take posses- 
sion of the soil of England. 

209. The Feudal System. William set up in England a 
system of landholding which, in the period following the in- 
vasions of the Teutons, had gradually grown up every- 
where on the Continent. This was called the feudal sys- 
tem. Under it, all the land belonged in theory to the king, 
but most of it was occupied by great lords who held it on 
condition that they assist the king in war. Each lord was 
bound to furnish a certain number of armed and mounted 
warriors, in proportion to the size of his estate. To get 
men with whom to fulfill this obligation, these "tenants-in- 
chief," as they were called, granted portions of their lands 
to "sub-tenants," on similar conditions. These in turn sub- 
let to others ; and so it went on, down to the simple peasants 
(called "villeins") who actually tilled the soil. The latter, 
however, did not give military service to their lord, but 
worked in his fields and gave him also a part of their own 
crops. 

The name given to an estate which was held on condition 
of military service was "benefice" or "fief." The fiefholder 
became the "vassal" or personal dependent of his lord. 
When he was put in possession of his land, the "vassal" 
knelt unarmed before his lord, placed both hands in his, and 
swore to be "his man" {hovio, in Latin), and to serve him as 
a vassal ought to serve his lord. This was called "doing 
homage." Then the vassal arose, and the lord gave him the 
kiss of peace, and the vassal swore "fealty," — that is, fidelity, 
— to him. Fiefs were generally hereditary, the son of a de- 
ceased vassal being permitted to succeed to his father's 
estates, on condition that he paid a sum of money, did hom- 
age, and swore fealty to the lord of the fief. 



NORMANS CONQUER ENGLAND 



165 



The lords owed their vassals protection, while the vassals 
owed service to their lords. This service was partly military 




A NORMAN CASTLE IN ENGLAND 



since they served as mounted knights for forty days each 
year. The lord could also call upon his vassals to come to 
his castle at certain times, and assist him with their coun- 
sel and advice. In addition, he might call upon them to 
serve him by giving him money — which they in turn col- 
lected from their villeins. These payments were called 
"aids," and could be collected on three occasions, — when the 
lord's eldest son was made a knight, when his eldest daugh- 
ter was married, and to ransom the lord himself, if he 
should be taken captive. 



166 OLD WORLD BACKGEOUND 

210. William's Checks on His Barons. On the Continent, 
the feudal system weakened the power of the king, because 
it created a tie between the lords and their tenants which 
was stronger than the tie which bound them to the king. 
Thus, if a great lord in France rebelled, his tenants sup- 
ported him rather than the king, and the whole land was 
filled with confusion. In England, William took pains to 
prevent his lords from becoming too powerful. The estates 
of the great landholders were scattered in different parts of 
the country, so that no man might be able to collect a great 
army in one place. He also kept up the old hundred and 
shire courts, and refused to allow the lords as much inde- 
pendence as they enjoyed on the Continent. Above all, he 
required every landholder to take an oath of allegiance to 
support the king, before and above his immediate lord. 
With these changes, William made the feudal system a 
means by which he could control not only the conquered 
English, but his Norman barons as well. 

211. What the Normans Did for England. In the course of 
several centuries the Normans lost their French speech and 
ways, and became swallowed up in the mass of the English 
people. The vigor of the Normans, together with their skill 
in war and in government, was added to the good qualities 
of the English race. The Old English had known how to 
build up communities in which the people governed them- 
selves through their township, hundred, and shire meetings. 
They had active local self-government; but they had not 
known how to build up a strong central government, which 
could keep the whole country united, put down lawlessness 
and disorder, and keep out foreign invaders. It was the 
work of the Norman kings to do this. And whenever we 
think of the great things which England has done in the 
world — of the colonies which it founded and still rules, and 
of the lessons which it has given the world in combining 



NORMANS CONQUER ENGLAND 167 

strong governments with freedom and personal liberty — we 
must remember that this is based in part upon the work of 
William the Conqueror. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Imagine yourself one of Harold's soldiers, and describe the Norman 

Conquest. 

2. Which had the better claim to the English throne, William or Har- 

old? Why? 

3. Read the account of the battle of Hastings in Lord Lytton's novel, 

Harold, the Last of the Saxon Kings (Book xii, chapter vii and 
viii). 

4. Find out what other great things the Normans accomplished. 

5. Study the picture in the front of this book, and describe the cere- 

mony of homage and fealty. 



CHAPTER XXIV 
KING JOHN AND THE GREAT CHARTER 

Points to Be Noted 

John's character and its results; how Normandy was lost. 

Cause of John's quarrel with the Pope; the interdict; how John made 

peace with tlie Pope. 
Complaints of the barons; advice of Stephen Langton; what the barons 

demanded; wlien and where the Great Charter was granted; how 

John felt about it. 
The renewal of the quarrel ; John's death. 
What the Charter secures for the people; why it is so highly prized. 

212. Character of King John. King John was the sixth 
king of England who followed William the Conqueror. He 
proved to be one of the worst rulers that England ever had — 
cruel, faithless, lazy, and reckless of everything save his own 
pleasure. Yet his very wickedness and tyranny, by spurring 
all classes to resistance, helped much to bring about political 
liberty and to make such tyranny impossible for the future. 

213. John Loses His French Fiefs. The Norman kings of 
England continued to be dukes of Normandy also, and since 
the days of the Conqueror they had gained much additional 
territory in France. John's misgovernment got him into a 
quarrel with the king of France over this territory. In the 
course of the struggle which followed, John's nephew Ar- 
thur, who had sided with the French king, was captured 
and imprisoned by John. Soon Arthur disappeared, and 
there can be no doubt that John had him secretly put to 
death. After this, John steadily lost grovmd, so that within 
a few months all Normandy and a great part of his other 
French possessions had fallen into the hands of the French 
king. 

214. His Quarrel with the Pope. Then followed a quarrel 
with the Pope over the election of a new archbishop of Can- 

168 



THE GREAT CHAETER 169 

terbury. John refused to receive Stephen Langton, whom 
the Pope appointed to that office, and seized the lands and 
revenues of the archbishopric. To punish the king, the 
Pope placed an "interdict" upon the whole kingdom — that 
is, he forbade all church services except the baptism of 
infants and the "last unction" or anointing of the dying. 
The church doors remained closed; the bells were silent;- 
even the dead were buried without ceremony, in unhallowed 
ground. After this had lasted for several years, John was 
forced to make peace with the Pope. Stephen Langton 
was permitted to take up his duties as archbishop, and John 
promised to restore the lands which he had taken from the 
Church. In addition, he surrendered his kingdom to the 
Pope and received it again as a fief, agreeing to pay a yearly 
tribute. Thus, this struggle ended by the king of England 
becoming the Pope's vassal, and this relationship lasted for 
more than a hundred years. 

215. John's Strug-gle with His Barons. At the time when 
John settled his quarrel with the Pope, he was in the midst 
of a third great struggle — this time with his own barons, 
who wished a remedy for the evils of his rule. 

King John was constantly making new demands upon 
both the nobles and the people. He had called upon them 
for services which they did not think they ought to render, 
and he had levied taxes unknown in earlier times. In some 
cases he cast men into prison without lawful cause, and in 
others he unjustly seized their lands and goods. The result 
was that, at length, all classes were ready to rebel. 

The barons found a shrewd adviser in Stephen Langton, 
the new archbishop. He reminded them of the "charter," 
or written promises, of an earlier king, who had granted 
reforms of government to the nation. He advised the bar- 
ons to demand a similar charter from King John. 

John was waging war on the Continent, seeking vainly 



170 



OLD WOELD BACKGROUND 



to recover his lost territories. The leading barons in Eng- 
land secretly met together, under pretext of a pilgrimage, 
and swore to compel the king to reform his abuses of gov- 
ernment, and to confirm his promise by a charter. Their 
demands were presented to John upon his return to Eng- 




JOHN GRANTING THE CHARTER 

land. The king cried out in wrath: "Why do they not 
ask for my kingdom? I will never grant such liberties as 
will make me a slave." 

In various ways, John sought to break up the forces that 
confronted him. It w^as all in vain. "The army of God 
and of Holy Church," as the rebels called themselves, 
marched upon London, and the citizens joyously opened the 
city gates to them. 



THE GREAT CHAETER 171 

216. The Great Charter Granted (1215). On June 15, in 
the year 1215, John met the representatives of the barons 
''in the meadow which is called Runnymede, between Wind- 
sor and Staines," on the River Thames. Here he was forced 
to give his consent to the Great Charter — called Magna 
Carta in Latin, the language in which it was written. It 
is said that when King John granted the Charter he wore 
a smiling countenance, and spoke pleasantly to the lords 
about him ; but that when he reached his own chamber he 
threw himself down in a mad rage upon the floor, gnashing 
his teeth and biting the rushes with which it was strewn. 

217. John Renews the Quarrel. John had no intention of 
keeping his promises, and war soon began again. The king 
had the support of hired troops, chiefly from France; and 
the Pope, who was now his overlord, gave him such help as 
he could. The barons, for their part, called the son of the 
king of France to their aid, and offered him the English 
crown. 

For a time it seemed as if John might overcome his ene- 
mies and again set up his will as law. But, in crossing an 
arm of the sea, his army was surprised by the tide, and his 
baggage, with the royal treasure, was washed away. Soon 
after this a fever seized John, and he died in a few days. 
Men said that his illness was caused by eating heartily of 
unripe peaches. With John dead, the barons withdrew 
their support from the French prince, and he soon returned 
to France. The barons had fought only against the tyranny 
of John, and they would not support a foreign prince against 
John's young son. 

218. Importance of the Great Charter. Since John's day 
the Great Charter has repeatedly been confirmed, and it 
now stands as part of the English Constitution. Its lead- 
ing principles are part of the law of every English-speaking 
nation, so the Great Charter has almost as much interest 



172 



OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 



■for us as for the people of England itself. Among many- 
important provisions, we find the following: 

"No free man shall be taken, or imprisoned, or dispos- 
sessed, or outlawed, or banished, or in any way destroyed, 
nor will we go upon him, nor will we send upon him, except 
by the lawful judgment of his peers, and by the law of the 
land." 

In this passage the king admitted that he had no right 
to imprison or punish any man except according to law. 







iJifi^jyxV SCE^n^KUJ^j 



PORTION OF THE GREAT CHARTER 

Written in Latin, with abbreriations. The first line, if written out. would be: 
".lohaiines. Dei Gratia Rex Angliae. Dominus Hyberniae," etc.; which, trans- 
lated, is: "John, by the grace of God King of England, Lord of Ireland," etc. 



In another famous passage John promised that he would 
collect no money as king unless it was granted to him by 
the consent of his barons in a Great Council assembled for 
that purpose. In this passage was laid the foundation of 
the principle that a government ought not to tax its sub- 
jects without their consent, and that "taxation without 
consent is tyranny." 

It is because of such provisions as these that the Great 
Charter is so highly prized by all English-speaking peoples. 
The principles which it laid down have not always been 
observed, and often the people have been obliged to force 
reluctant kings to observe them. But ever since John 



THE GREAT CHARTER 173 

granted the Charter it has been a rallying point in the 
struggle for liberty, and it has rightly been regarded as a 
great defense of the rights of the people against the tyranny 
of their rulers. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. In their quarrel, which was in the right, John or the Pope? 

2. Why did the interdict force John to make peace with the Pope? 

3. What is a charter? 

4. Explain what is meant by "the lawful judgment of his peers." 

5. When did the English colonists in America make use of the principle 

that "taxation without consent is tyranny" ? 



CHAPTER XXV 
THE RISE OF PARLIAMENT 

Points to Be Noted 

The name of the central assembly in Anglo-Saxon days; under the 
Normans; how these assemblies differed from Parliament. 

When and in what part of the government representatives first arose; 
how the Normans increased their use ; why they were added to the 
Great Council. 

The two sorts of representatives in Parliament; when each was first 
introduced; tlie Model Parliament. 

Separation of Parliament into two Houses; of whom each was com- 
posed; the Commons given equal powers in lawmaking with the 
Lords; powers of Parliament not so great as they became later. 

219. Early English Assemblies. Perhaps the greatest thing 
which England has given to the world is the system of 
Parliaments, or legislative assemblies (including our Con- 
gress and State legislatures), by which the greater part of 
the world is now governed. 

There never has been a period, since England has been 
united into a single kingdom, when some sort of council or 
assembly was not called, from time to time, to aid the king 
in governing. In the days of the Angles and Saxons, this 
body was called the Witenagemot, or assembly of the wise 
men, and it was made up of the bishops, abbots, king's 
thanes, and chief ofl&cers of the kingdom. It was this body 
which aided Alfred in making his laws, and which elected 
Harold — and after him William — king of England. 

After the Norman Conquest, the kings from time to time 
called about them, to aid them with counsel and advice, 
all the lords who held land directly of them by feudal 
tenure. Except for the fact that the feudal lords were at 
first mainly Normans, this body did not differ very much 
from the Witenagemot which preceded it; for the great 

174 



THE RISE OF PARLIAMENT 175 

officers of the land were the king's vassals, and the bishops 
and abbots also held their lands by feudal tenure from the 
king. It was this Great Council of the barons which set- 
tled who should have the crown when there was a dispute; 
it was also this body which helped the kings carry on the 
work of government. But the Great Council only aided 
and advised the king; it did not control him. 

220. How Parliament Differs. What is it that makes the 
difference between these earlier assemblies and the later 
one which we call Parliament? 

First, Parliament is a "representative" body — that is, it 
is composed in part of persons who do not sit in right of 
their offices or lands, but who are elected to represent the 
people. Second, it is divided into two "houses" — a House 
of Lords and a House of Commons. And third, it has more 
power than the older assemblies had. 

221. Representatives First Used in Local Affairs. The addi- 
tion of representatives, along with the great churchmen and 
barons, was the first step in transforming the old Great 
Council into the Parliament. The practice of having repre- 
sentatives to act in the name of the community, was first 
used in local government. In the Anglo-Saxon time, each 
township sent four representatives to take part in the "hun- 
dred" and "shire" meetings. When the Normans came, 
they began the practice of using committees of representa- 
tives, in the different districts of the country, for many pur- 
poses. Sometimes they ordered such committees to declare 
what the old English law was, in order to guide their judges 
in deciding cases. Sometimes such committees were used 
to make a list of all the property in their districts, with the 
value of it and the names of the owners. By and by com- 
mittees of sworn representatives were used to find out the 
facts in a given case at law, and declare their decision or 
verdict. Such a committee was called a "jury," and the 



176 OLD WORLD BACKGEOUND 

introduction of jury trial marked a great step in advance 
over the older forms of trial. But the important thing to 
note here is that the decision which each jury gave was 
regarded as the decision of the community. In other words, 
the jury "represented" the community for that purpose, 
and its voice was taken as the voice of the community as a 
whole. 

Thus, in many ways, the people became used to the idea 
of having representatives chosen to help carry on the local 
governments, in the name of the people of the community. 
222. Representatives Added to Great Council. Why, we 
may now ask, were representatives added to the Great 
Council? The reason is that a time came when the kings 
needed more money to carry on the work of government; 
and that this additional money had to come, not only from 
the nobles, who already had seats in the Great Council, 
but also from the wealthy townsmen and country gentle- 
men. It seemed best, therefore, to ask the towns and the 
counties to send representatives to meet with the Great 
Council, and to give the consent of their communities 
to the new taxes. This would make it easier to collect the 
money, for then there would be less grumbling about it. 
It would also be more in keeping with that passage of the 
Great Charter in which the king promised not to collect 
money from his subjects without their consent. Of course 
it would have been possible for the king's officers to go 
about the country asking the consent of each community 
in turn to the grant; and indeed this was done at times. 
But on the whole it was felt that it would be much quicker 
and more satisfactory to bring together in one place the 
representatives of all the communities, and there secure 
their consent. 

The representatives who were thus called together were 
of two sorts — first, the "knights of the shire, ' who repre- 



THE RISE OF PARLIAMENT 



177 




SEAL OF EDWARD I 



sented the lesser nobles and country gentlemen; and, sec- 
ond, the "borough representatives," who came from the 
cities and towns (boroughs) 
and represented the trading 
classes. 

223. Knigfhts of the Shire 
(1213). The knights of the 
shire were the first to be add- 
ed to the assembly. In 1213, 
for the first time, the king 
called them to meet with the 
Great Council, ''to speak with 
us concerning the business of 
our kingdom." From time to 
time after that, "knights of 

the shire" were summoned to the assemblies, until the prac- 
tice became permanent. They were elected by the land- 
holders, in the county assemblies, and every county sent 
two, no matter what its size. 

224. Borough Representatives (1265). The addition of the 
town, or borough, representatives came first in 1265, when 
the barons in England, under their leader, Simon of Mont- 
fort, were again in rebellion against the misgovernment of 
the king. After the rebellion was put down, the king con- 
tinued the practice of asking representatives of the bor- 
oughs, from time to time, to come to the central assembly. 
Finally, in 1295, King Edward I called a meeting which 
established it as a rule that, in a Parliament, there ought 
to be representatives both of the counties and of the towns. 
This was called the "Model Parliament," because it became 
a model for succeeding ones. Each town which sent repre- 
sentatives at all, in those days, elected two. 

225. Separation into Two Houses. At first, the representa- 
tives of the counties and of the boroughs sat in the same 



178 OLD WOELD BACKGEOUND 

body with the barons and great churchmen. By the year 
1340, however, Parliament had separated into two "houses." 
The upper house was the House of Lords, and included the 
great barons (who bore the titles of duke, marquis, earl, 
viscount, and baron), and also the archbishops and bishops, 
and the abbots or heads of monasteries. 

The lower house was the House of Commons. In course 
of time it became the more important part of Parliament. 
This was because it especially was called upon to vote the 
taxes which the king needed for carrying on the govern- 
ment. For a time the towns and counties looked upon 
representation in Parliament as a burden. But gradually 
their representatives began to hold back the voting of taxes 
until the king and his ministers promised to correct any 
grievances of which they complained. Then it was seen 
that the right of voting taxes was a great and valuable 
power, and the people no longer complained of the burden 
of being represented in Parliament. 

226. The Power of the Conmions. At first, it was not cer- 
tain whether the House of Commons would be admitted to 
a share in the lawmaking power, or whether it would be 
allowed only to vote taxes. In his summons to the Model 
Parliament, however, Edward I laid down the principle 
that "what concerns all should be approved by all." 
Twenty-seven years later the rule was definitely stated that 
all matters which concerned the kingdom and the people 
"shall be established in Parliament by the king, and by 
the consent of the Lords and Commons of the realm." This 
rule gave the House of Commons an equal right with the 
House of Lords in all law-making. From this time on the 
powers of the Commons grew, until they are now much 
greater than those of the House of Lords. 

227. Parliament Not Yet Supreme. But we must not think 
of these early Parliaments as having the great powers which 



THE RISE OF PARLIAMENT 179 

Parliaments have today. The king was still much more 
powerful than the Parliament, though since the granting of 
the Great Charter it was recognized that the king was below 
the law, and not above it. In making new laws, and in lay- 
ing new taxes, he needed the consent of Parliament. But 
in carrying on the general business of the government — in 
making war, and in concluding peace — he could act without 
Parliament. Often he consulted Parliament about such 
matters, but he could act as he pleased. The ministers who 
carried on the government were still the king's ministers, 
and responsible to him only. It was to be several centuries 
yet — and a great civil war was to be fought, and one king 
beheaded and another deposed — before Parliament was rec- 
ognized as the chief power in the government. 

Neverthless, before the Middle Ages had come to an end, 
the framework of the legislative assembly, in the form in 
which it was to be carried into all the great English colonies, 
and in which it was later to be taken up in all self-governing 
countries, was practically complete. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Rule three columns on the blackboard, head one Witenagemot, the 

next Great Council, and the third Parliament, and write down the 
chief facts concerning each body. 

2. Show how the representative principle enables free government in 

modem times to rule much greater territories than the republics 
of Greece and Rome were able to rule, when the representative 
principle was not yet developed. 

3. Find out how a jury trial is conducted today. 

4. Show how the representative principle enabled the people to use the 

rights of self-government which they forced the kings to grant. 

5. Find out what you can about the Parliament called by Simon de 

Montfort in 1265. 

6. Do the same for the Model Parliament of 1295. 



CHAPTER XXVI 
LIFE IN THE CASTLES 

Points to Be Noted 

Place of the castle in the life of the Middle Ages. 

Plan of a Norman castle in the eleventh century; entrance to it; the 
outer court; the inner court; the keep of the castle; attacks on 
castles. 

The castle in time of peace; the great hall; dwellers in the castle; train- 
ing for knighthood; the page; life of tlie squire; amusements of 
the castle folk; falconry; hunting with hounds. 

The conferring of knighthood; feats and feasting. 

228. Life of the Middle Ag^es. We must now try to picture 
to ourselves the life of Europe in the days which preceded 
the discovery of the New World. We shall read first about 
life in the castles, where lordly knights and gentle ladies 
dwelt. Then we shall see what was the manner of life of 
the peasants who dwelt in the villages, and of the merchants 
and craftsmen who dwelt in the cities and towns. Finally, 
we shall visit the monasteries, and see what was the life of 
the monks and nuns, who gave their lives to the service and 
praise of God. 

229. The Castles. If you visit England, France, and other 
European countries today, you will find on every hand the 
ruins of great stone castles, rearing their tall towers on the 
hilltops, and commanding the passage of roads and rivers. 
At the present time these are mostly tumbled down and 
overgrown with moss and ivy, and nobody cares to live 
within their dark walls. 

In the Middle Ages it was not so. Then the castles were 
the safest places in which to live; so, in spite of their cold 
and gloom, they became the centers of the life of the time. 
It was from the castles that the feudal barons ruled their 
lands. It was there that the peasants found refuge from the 

180 



LIFE IN THE CASTLES 181 

attacks of Northmen and other enemies. In them chivalry- 
was born and flourished ; at their gates tournaments, jousts, 
and other knightly festivals took place; and in their halls 
the wandering singers, who were building up a new liter- 
ature, found the readiest welcome and the most eager and 
appreciative listeners. 

230. Plan of a Norman Castle. Let us fancy ourselves back 
in the eleventh or twelfth century, and examine a castle. 
We shall find the country very different, we may be sure, 
from what it is today. Great forests stand where now there 
are flourishing towns; and everything has a wilder, more 
unsettled look. 

Here is a castle in France that will suit our purpose. It 
was built by one of the vassals of William the Conqueror, 
and has been the scene of many sieges and battles. See 
how everything is arranged so as to make easy its defense. 
It is built on the top of a steep hill, and around its walls is 
dug a deep ditch or moat. At the outer edge of the moat 
we see a strong palisade of heavy stakes set in the ground. 
Just inside this is a path, along which sentries march in 
time of war. The gate, too., is doubly and triply guarded. 
In front of it is a drawbridge across the moat — indeed, there 
are two; and the space between is guarded by a protecting 
wall. In later days these drawbridges were made stronger 
and more complicated, and heavy towers, with walls of 
masonry, were built, the better to protect the entrance. 

231. The Entrance. When we have passed these outer 
works, we come to a heavy wooden door between two tall 
towers which mark the entrance to the walls. We pass 
through this, and find ourselves within the gateway. But 
we are still far from being in the castle. In the narrow 
vaulted passageway before us, we see suspended a heavy- 
iron grating, called the portcullis, which may come rattling 
down at any moment to bar our passage. And beyond this 



182 



OLD WOELD BACKGEOUND 




A CASTLE OF THE ELEVENTH CENTURY 



LIFE IN THE CASTLES 183 

is another door; and beyond this another portcullis. The 
entrance to the castle is indeed well guarded ; and the porter 
who keeps watch at the gate, and has to open and shut all 
these barriers, is at times a busy man. 

232. The Courtyards. At last we are past the gateway and 
find ourselves in an open courtyard. The thick walls of 
the castle surround us on all sides, and at their top we see 
the battlements and loopholes through which arrows may 
be shot at the enemy. Here and there the wall is protected 
by stone towers, in which are stairways leading to the battle- 
ments above. In the first courtyard we find the stables, 
where the lord of the castle keeps his horses. Here, too, is 
space for the shelter of the villagers in time of war; and 
here, perhaps, is the great brick oven in which bread is 
baked to feed the lord and all his followers. 

Going on we come to a wall or palisade, which separates 
the courtyard we are in from one lying beyond it. In later 
times this wall, too, was made much stronger than we find 
it here. Passing through a gateway, we come into the 
second courtyard. Here again we find a number of build- 
ings, used for different purposes. In one are the storerooms 
and cellars, where provisions are kept to enable the dwellers 
in the castle to stand a siege. Next to this is a building 
shaped like a great jug, with a large chimney at the top, 
and smaller ones in a circle round about. This is the kitch- 
en, in which the food is cooked for the lord of the castle and 
his household. The cooking, we may be sure, is usually 
simple — most of the meats being roasted on spits over open 
fires, and elaborate dishes, with sauces and spices, being yet 
uncommon. Most castles have, in addition, a small church 
or chapel in this courtyard, in which the inhabitants may 
worship. 

233. The Keep. The most important building of all is still 
to be described. There at the end of the courtyard we see 



184 OLD WOELD BACKGEOUND 

the tall "keep" of the castle, which the French called "don- 
jon," and in whose basement there are "dungeons" indeed, 
for traitors and captured enemies. This is the true strong- 
hold of the baron, and it is a secure retreat. Think of all 
the hard fighting there must be before the enemy can even 
reach it. The drawbridges must be crossed, the gates must 
be battered down, and the portcullises pried up; the first 
courtyard must be cleared; the dividing wall must be car- 
ried; the second courtyard also must be cleared of its de- 
fenders. And when the enemy, bruised and worn, at last 
arrive at the keep, their work is just begun. There the lord 
and his followers will make their last stand, and the fighting 
will be fiercer than ever. 

234. Attacks on the Castle. The walls of the keep are of 
stone, eight to ten feet thick; and from the loopholes in its 
frowning sides peer skilled archers and crossbowmen, ready 
to let fly their bolts and arrows at all in sight. A long, long 
siege will be necessary to starve out its defenders. If this 
is not done, movable towers must be erected, battering rams 
placed, stone-hurling machines brought up, blazing arrows 
shot at the roof and windows, and tunnels dug to undermine 
the walls. In this way the castle may be burned, or an en- 
trance at last be gained. But even then there will be fierce 
fighting in the narrow passageways, in the dimly-lighted 
halls, and on the winding stairways which lead from story 
to story. It will be long, indeed, before our lord's banner 
is torn from the summit of the tower, and his enemy's is 
placed in its stead! And even when all is lost, there still 
remain hidden stairways in the castle walls, underground 
passages opening into the moat, and the gate in the rear, 
through which the lord and his garrison may yet escape to 
the woods and open fields; and so continue the battle an- 
other day. 

In later times, stronger and more complicated castles were 



LIFE IN THE CASTLES 



185 









Inf^rX'- 






''rO 









^^y^' 







THE "SAUCY CASTLE" OF RICHARD THE LION-HEARTED 



186 OLD WOELD BACKGROUND 

erected, especially after Western lords had begun to go on 
the Crusades, and had seen the great fortresses of the East- 
ern Empire. The picture on the preceding page shows 
such a castle, erected in Normandy by Richard the Lion- 
Hearted of England, and called by him the "Saucy Castle" 
because of its defiance of the French king. The picture 
also shows hurling engines set for attack, and a movable 
tower being brought to scale its walls. 

235. The Castle in Peace. But let us inquire, now, con- 
cerning the life of the castle in time of peace. Where and 
how did the lord and his household live? How were his 
children educated? And with what did they amuse them- 
selves in the long days when there was no enemy to attack 
their walls, and no distant expedition in which to engage? 

Sometimes the lord and his family lived in the upper 
stories of the huge donjon, where arms and supplies were 
always stored. But this was so gloomy, with its thick walls 
and narrow windows, that many lords built more comfort- 
able "halls" in their courtyards, and preferred to live in 
these. Let us look in upon such a hall, whether it is in the 
donjon, or in a separate building. The picture at the front 
of this book gives us a good idea of what it was like. It was 
a great wide room, large enough to hold all the inhabitants 
of the castle. This was the real center of the life of 
the castle. Here the lord ate and slept; here the great 
banquets were held ; here he received his vassals to do hom- 
age; here he played chess and backgammon with his com- 
panions; and here in the evening the inmates gathered, 
perchance to listen to the songs and tales of wandering 
minstrels. 

Within the castle are many people, occupying themselves 
in many ways. In the courtyards are servants and depend- 
ents, caring for the horses, cooking in the kitchen, and busily 
engaged in other occupations. Elsewhere are those whose 



LIFE IN THE CASTLES 187 

duty it is to guard the castle — the porter at the gate, the 
watchman on the tower, and the men-at-arms to defend the 
walls in case of attack. Besides these we see many boys 
and young men, who are evidently of too noble birth to be 
servants and yet are too young to be warriors. Who can 
they be? 

236. Training for Knighthood. These are the sons of the 
lord of the castle, and of other lords, who are learning to be 
knights. Their training is long and careful. Until he is 
seven years old, the little noble is left to the care of his 
mother an the women of the castle. At the age of seven 
his knigh^ education begins. 

From tne age of seven till he reaches the age of fourteen, 
the boy is called a "page" or "varlet," which means little 
vassal. Usually he is sent away from home to the castle 
of his father's lord, or of some famous knight, to be brought 
up and trained for knighthood. There he waits upon the 
lord and lady of the castle. He serves them at the table, 
and he attends them when they ride forth to the chase. 
From them he learns lessons of honor and bravery, of love 
and chivalry. Above all, he learns how to ride and handle 
a horse. 

When the young noble has become a well-grown lad of 
fourteen or fifteen, he is made a "squire." Now it is his 
duty to look after his lord's horses and arms. The horses 
must be carefully groomed every morning, and the squire 
must see that their shoes are all right. He must also see 
that his lord's arms and armor are kept bright and free from 
rust. When the lord goes forth to war, his squire accom- 
panies him, riding on a big strong horse, and carrying his 
lord's shield and lance. When the lord goes into battle, his 
squire must stay near, leading a spare steed and ready to 
hand his master fresh weapons at any moment. After sev- 
eral years of this service, the squire may himself be allowed 



188 



OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 



to use weapons and fight at his lord's side; and sometimes 
he may even be allowed to ride forth alone in search of 
adventures. 

In this manner the squire learns the business of a knight, 
which is fighting. But he also learns his amusements and 
accomplishments. 

237. Amusements of the Castle. Let us approach a group 
of squires in the castle hall, when their work is done and 
they are tired of chess and backgammon. They are disput- 







FALCOXRY 



ing, perhaps, as to which is the more interesting, hunting 
or falconry; and we may hear a delicate-featured squire 
hold forth in this way : 

"What can be prettier than a bright-eyed, well-trained 
falcon hawk? And what can be pleasanter than the sport 
of flying it at the birds? Take some fine September morn- 
ing, when the sky is blue and the air is fresh, and our lord 
and lady ride forth with their attendants. Each carries his 
falcon on his gloved hand, and we hurry forward in pursuit 



LIFE IN THE CASTLES 189 

of cranes, herons, ducks, and other birds. When one is 
sighted, a falcon is unhooded, and let fly at it. The falcon's 
bells tinkle merrily as he rises. Soon he is in the air above 
the game, and swift as an arrow he darts upon the prey, 
plunging his talons into it, and. crouching over it until the 
hunter gallops up to recover both falcon and prey. This is 
the finest hunting. And what skill is necessary in rearing 
and training the birds! Ah, falconry is the sport for me!" 

But this does not seem to be the opinion of others of the 
group. Their views are expressed by a tall, strongly-built 
squire, who says: 

"Falconry is all right for women and boys, but it is not 
the sport for men. What are your falcons to my hounds 
and harriers? The education of one good boar-hound, I 
can tell you, requires as much care as all your falcons ; and 
when you are done the dog loves you, and that is more than 
you can say for your hawks. And the chase itself is far more 
exciting. The hounds are uncoupled, and set yelping upon 
the scent, and away we dash after them, plunging through 
the woods, leaping glades and streams in our haste. At last 
we reach the spot where the game has turned at bay, and 
find an enormous boar, defending himself stoutly and fiercely 
against the hounds. Right and left he rolls the dogs. With 
his back bristling with rage, he charges straight for the 
huntsmen. Look out, now; for his sharp tusks cut like a 
knife! But the huntsmen are skilled, and the dogs play 
well their part. Before the beast can reach man or horse, 
he is pierced by a dozen spears, and is nailed to the ground, 
dead! Isn't this a nobler sport than hawking?" 

So, we may be sure, most of the knights and squires will 
agree. But the ladies, and many of the squires and knights, 
will still love best the sport of falconry. 

238. The Conferring of Knighthood. In this way the squire 
spends his days until he reaches the age of twenty or 



190 



OLD WOELD BACKGROUND 



twenty-one. He has now proved both his courage and his 
skill, and at last his lord says that he has "earned his spurs." 
The squire is to be made a knight, and this is the occasion 
for great festivities. 

In company with other squires who are candidates for 
knighthood, he must go through a careful preparation. 
First comes the bath, which is the mark of purification. 
Then he puts on garments of red, white, and black. The 
red means the blood he is willing to shed in defense of the 




ARMING THE KNIGHT 

Church and of the oppressed; the white means that his 
mind is pure and clean ; and the black is to remind him of 
death, which comes to all. 

Next comes the "watching of the arms." All night the 
squires keep watch, fasting and praying, before the altar in 
the church on which their arms have been placed; and 
though they may stand or kneel, they must on no account 
sit or lie down. At the break of day the priest comes. After 
they have each confessed their sins to him, they hear mass 



LIFE IN THE CASTLES 



191 



and take the holy sacrament. Perhaps, too, the priest 
preaches a sermon on the proud duties of the knights, and 
of the obligations which each owes to God and to the 
Church. 

At last the squires assemble in the courtyard of the castle, 
or in some open place outside the walls. There they find 
great numbers of knights and ladies who have come to grace 
the occasion of their knighting. Each squire in turn now 
















A GREAT FEAST IN THE TWELFTH CENTURY 

The birds flying about have been "baked in a pie." as in the old song, 
and falcons are now loosed at them 

takes his place on a carpet which is spread on the ground, 
and his friends and relatives assist in girding on his armor 
and his sword. Then comes the most important moment 
of all. His father or his lord advances and gives him what 
is called the "accolade." At first this was a heavy blow 
with the fist, given upon the squire's neck ; but later it was 
with the flat of a sword upon his shoulder. At the same 
time the person who gives the accolade cries out: 



192 OLD WOELD BACKGKOUND 

''In the name of God, and Saint Michael, and Saint 
George, I dub thee knight! Be brave and loyal!" 

239. Feats and Feasting. The squire is now a knight, but 
the festival is not yet over. The new-made knights must 
first give an exhibition of their skill in riding and handling 
their horses, and in striking with their lances marks which 
are set up for them to ride at. Then comes fencing with 
their swords on horseback. The day is wound up with a 
great feast and music and the distribution of presents. 

Then, at last, the guests depart; and the new-made 
knights go off to bed, to dream of Saracens to be fought in 
the Holy Land, and dragons to be slain, and wicked knights 
to be encountered, — and, above all, of beautiful maidens to 
be rescued and served with loyalty and with love. 

So they dream the dreams of chivalry. And, when they 
awaken, the better ones among them — but not all, alas! — 
will seek to put their dreams into action. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Imagine yom-self a page, and write a letter home telling of your life. 

2. Imagine yourself a squire, and write an account of the siege of a 

castle. See Scott's Ivanhoe, chai^ters 19-23. 

3. Let the girls find out what they can of the life of the ladies of the 

castle, and make a stoiy out of that. 

4. Describe the knighting of an imaginary squire. 

5. Read "The Story of Gilbert the Page" (.Jane Andrews, Ten Boys). 

6. "What did "Chivalry" mean in the Middle Ages? What does it 

mean now? 

7. Draw a map of the castle pictured on page 182, and name the 

various parts. 



CHAPTER XXVII 

LIFE IN THE VILLAGES 

Points to Be Noted 

How the knights were sui^ported; the thi-ee classes of society in the 

Middle Ages. 
Position of the peasants; tlie lord's domain and the common lands; 

the three fields; the peasant's scattered strips. 
The peasants' payments to their lord; the services which they owed 

him. 
The peasants lived in villages; their houses; their furniture; peasant 

food and clothing; contempt of the nobles for them; possibility of 

leaving their lord's estate. 

240. How the Knights Were Supported. One important 
thing about the life of the knights and squires has not yet 
been explained; that is, how they were supported. They 
neither cultivated the fields, nor manufactured articles for 
sale, nor engaged in commerce. How then were they fed 
and clothed, and furnished with their expensive armor and 
horses? How, in short, was all this life of the castle kept 
up, — with its great buildings, its constant wars, its costly 
festivals, and its idleness? 

We may find the explanation of this in the saying of a 
bishop who lived in the early part of the Middle Ages. 
"God," said he, "divided the human race from the beginning 
into three classes. These were the priests, whose duty it 
was to pray and to serve God; the knights, whose duty it 
was to defend society ; and the peasants, whose duty it was 
to till the soil and to support, by their labor, the other 
classes." 

This, indeed, was the arrangement as it existed during 
the whole of the Middle Ages. The peasants who tilled the 
soil, together with the merchants and craftsmen of the 

193 



194 



OLD WOELD BACKGROUND 



towns, bore all the burden of supporting the more pictur- 
esque classes above them. 

241. Position of the Peasants. The peasants were called 
"serfs" and "villeins," and their position was very curious. 
For several miles about the castle, all the land belonged to 
its lord, and was called, in England, his "manor." He did 




PLAN OF VILLAGE 

The strips belonging to the lord's "domain" were usually scattered amid those 
held by his tenants, but for greater clearness they are here shown as if gathered 
into one piece. 

not own the land outright, — for, as you know, he did hom- 
age and fealty for it to his lord or "suzerain," and the latter 
in turn owed homage and fealty to his "suzerain," and so 
on up to the king. Neither did the lord of the castle keep 
all of the manor lands in his own hands. He did not wish 
to till the land himself, so most of it was divided up and 
tilled by peasants, who kept their shares as long as they 



LIFE IN THE VILLAGES 195 

lived, and passed them on to their children after them. As 
long as the peasants performed the services and made the 
payments which they owed to the lord, the latter could not 
rightfully turn them out of their land. 

242. The Manor. The part of the manor which the lord 
kept in his own hands was called his "domain," and we shall 
see presently how this was used. In addition there were 
certain parts which were used by the peasants as common 
pastures for their cattle and sheep; that is, they all had 
joint rights in this. Then there was the woodland, to which 
the peasants might each send a certain number of pigs to 
feed upon the beech nuts and acorns. Finally, there was 
the part of the manor which was given over to the peasants 
to till. 

This was usually divided into three great fields, without 
any fences, walls, or hedges about them. In one of these we 
should find wheat growing, or some other grain that is sown 
in the fall; in another we should find a crop of some grain, 
such as oats, which requires to be sown in the spring ; while 
in the third we should find no crop at all. The next year 
the arrangement would be changed, and again the next year. 
In this way, each field bore winter grain one year, spring 
grain the next, and the third year it was plowed several 
times and allowed to rest to recover its fertility. While 
resting it was said to "lie fallow." Then the round was 
repeated. This whole arrangement was due to the fact that 
people in those days did not know as much about "fertiliz- 
ers" and "rotation of crops" as we do now. 

The most curious arrangement of all was the way the 
cultivated land was divided up. Each peasant had from 
ten to thirty acres of land which he cultivated; and part 
of this lay in each of the three fields. But instead of lying 
all together, it was scattered about in long narrow strips, 
each containing about an acre, with strips of unplowed sod 



196 



OLD WOELD BACKGEOUXD 



separating the plowed strips from one another. This was 
a very unsatisfactory arrangement, because each peasant 
had to waste so much time in going from one strip to an- 




PEASANTS PLOWING 




PEASANTS BREAKING CLODS WITH MALLETS 

other; and nobody has been able to explain quite clearly 
how it ever came about. But this is the ai*rangement 
which prevailed in almost all European countries through- 
out the whole of the Middle Ages, and indeed in some 
places for long afterward. 

243. The Peasant's Payments and Services. In return for 
the land which the peasant held from his lord, he owed the 
latter many payments and many services. He paid fixed 
sums of money at different times during the year; and if 
his lord or his lord's suzerain knighted his eldest son, or 
married off his eldest daughter, or went on a crusade, or 
was taken captive and had to be ransomed — then the peas- 
ant must pay an additional sum. At Easter and at other 



LIFE IN THE VILLAGES 



197 



fixed times the peasant brought a gift of eggs or chickens 
to his lord; and he also gave the lord one or more of his 
lambs and pigs each year for the use of the pasture. At 
harvest time the lord received a portion of the grain raised 




HARROWING 
The boy with a sling is driving away the birds from the grain 



miiiiiMiiiiij 




MEN AND WOMEN REAPING 



on the peasant's land. In addition the peasant must grind 
his grain at his lord's mill, and pay the charge for this; he 
must also bake his bread in the great oven which belonged 
to the lord, and use his lord's presses in making his cider 
and wine, paying for each. 

These payments were sometimes burdensome enough, but 
they were not nearly so burdensome as the services which 
the peasants owed their lord. All the labor of cultivating 
the lord's domain land was performed by them. They 
plowed it with their great clumsy plows and ox teams ; they 
harrowed it, and sowed it, and weeded it, and reaped it ; and 
finally they carted the sheaves to the lord's barns, and 
threshed them by beating with great jointed clubs or "flails." 



198 



OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 



And when the work was done, the grain belonged entirely 
to the lord. About two days a week were spent this way 
in working on the lord's domain, and the peasants could 
only work on their own lands between times. In addition, 
if the lord decided to build new towers, or a new gate, or to 
erect new buildings in the castle, the peasants had to carry 
stone and mortar for the building and help the paid masons 
in every way possible. 

And, when the demands of their lord were satisfied, there 
were still other demands made upon them ; for every tenth 




THRESHING 



sheaf of grain, and every tenth egg, chicken, lamb, pig, and 
calf, had to be given to the Church as "tithes." 

244. How the Peasants Lived. The peasants did not live 
scattered about the country as our farmers do, but dwelt 
all together in an open village. If we could take our stand 
there on a day in spring, we should see much to interest us. 
On the hilltop above is the lord's castle ; and near by is the 
parish church with the priest's house. In the distance are 
the green fields, cut into long narrow strips; and in them 
we see men plowing and harrowing with teams of slow- 



LIFE IN THE VILLAGES 199 

moving oxen, while women are busy with hooks and tongs 
weeding the growing grain. Close at hand in the village 
we hear the clang of the blacksmith's anvil, and the miller's 
song as he carries the sacks of grain and flour to and from 
the mill. Dogs are barking, donkeys are braying, cattle are 
lowing; and through it all we hear the sound of little chil- 
dren at play or women singing at their work. 

The houses themselves were often little better than 
wooden huts thatched with straw or rushes, though some- 
times they w^e of stone. Even at the best they were dark, 
dingy, and unhealthful. Chimneys were just beginning to 
be used in the Middle Ages for the castles of the great lords ; 
but in the peasants' houses the smoke was usually allowed 
to escape through the doorway. The door was often made 
so that the upper half could be left open for this purpose 
while the lower half was closed. The cattle were usually 
housed under the same roof with the peasant's family. 

Within the houses we should not find much furniture. 
Here is a list of the things which one well-to-do family 
owned in the year 1345: 

2 feather beds, 15 linen sheets, and 4 striped yellow counterpanes. 

1 hand-mill for grinding- meal, a pestle and mortar for pounding grain. 
2 grain chests, a kneading trough, and 2 ovens over wliich coals could 
be heaped for baking, 

2 iron tripods on which to hang kettles over the fire ; 2 metal pots and 
1 large kettle. 

1 metal bowl, 2 brass water jugs, 4 bottles, a copper box, a tin wash- 
tub, a metal warming-pan, 2 large chests, a box, a cupboard, 4 tables 
on trestles, a large table, and a bench, 

2 axes, 4 lances, a crossbow, a scythe, and some other tools. 

The food and clothing of the peasant were coarse and 
simple, but were usually sufiicient for his needs. At times, 
however, war or a succession of bad seasons would bring 
famine upon a district. Then the suffering would be ter- 
rible; for there were no provisions saved up, and the roads 



200 OLD WOELD BACKGKOUND 

were so bad and communication so difficult that it was hard 
to bring suppUes from other regions where there was plenty. 
At such times, the peasants suffered most. They were 
forced to eat roots, herbs, and the bark of trees; and often 
they died by hundreds for want of even such food. 

245. Condition of the Peasants. Thus you will see that 
the lot of the peasant was a hard one; and it was often 
made still harder by the cruel contempt which the nobles 
felt for those whom they looked upon as "base-born." The 
name "villeins" was given the peasants because they lived 
in villages; but the nobles have handed down the name, in 
the form "villain," as a term of reproach. In a poem which 
w^as written to please the nobles, no doubt, the writer scolds 
at the villein because he was too well fed, and, as he says, 
"made faces" at the clergy. "Ought he to eat fish?" the poet 
asks. "Let him eat thistles, briars, thorns, and straw, on 
Sunday, for fodder; and pea-husks during the week! Let 
him keep watch all his days, and have trouble. Thus ought 
villeins to live. Ought he to eat meats? He ought to go 
naked on all fours, and crop herbs with the horned cattle in 
the fields!" 

Of course there were many lords who did not feel this 
way toward their peasants. Ordinarily the peasant was not 
nearly so badly off as the slave in the Greek and Roman 
days; and often, perhaps, he was as well off as many of 
the peasants of Europe today. But there was this differ- 
ence between his position and that of the peasant now. 
Many of them could not leave their lord's manor, and move 
elsewhere, without their lord's permission. If they did so, 
their lord could pursue them, and bring them back. If, 
however, they succeeded in getting to a free town, and 
dwelt there for a year and a day without being recaptured, 
then they became freed from their lord, and might dwell 
where they chose. 



LIFE IN THE VILLAGES 201 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Make a list of the ways in wliieli the farming of the Middle Ages 

differed from that of the United States today. 

2. How do you suppose the cattle, sheep, pigs, and geese were pre- 

vented from straying into the cultivated fields, in the absence 
of fences and hedges? 

3. "Why did the peasants live in villages, instead of in scattered farm- 

houses ? 

4. What can you learn concerning the cooking an'angements of the 

Middle Ages, from the list of household possessions on page 
199, and from the fact that all the bread for the village was 
baked in one great oven? 

5. Would you be likely to find any shops in a village of the Middle 

Ages? Give reasons for your answer. 



CHAPTER XXVIII 
LIFE IN THE MEDIEVAL TOWNS 

Points to Be Noted 

Decay of towns after the coming of the Teutons; gradual growth of 

better conditions. 
Revival of towns in the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries; the 

towTis in Italy, in Germany, and in France; what the towns did 

for the world. 
Privileges of the towns; their rights of self-government; struggles 

within the towns; their independence finally lost. 
Life in the towns; the walls, streets, and houses; shops and workmen; 

the apprentices; tlie guilds; the cathedral; the bell tower. 
The great fairs of the Middle Ages; a busy street scene. 

246. Decay of Towns Under Teuton Rule. The Teutons 
had never hved in cities in their old homes; so, when they 
came into the Roman Empire, they preferred the free life 
of the country to settling within town walls. The old Ro- 
man cities, which had sprung up all over the Empire, had 
already lost much of their importance, and under these 
country-loving conquerors they soon lost what was left. In 
many places the inhabitants entirely disappeared; other 
places decreased in size; and all lost what rights they had 
had of governing themselves. 

The inhabitants of the towns became no better off than 
the peasants who lived in the little villages. In both the 
people lived by tilling the soil. In both the lord of the 
district made laws, appointed officers, and settled disputes 
in his own court. There was little difference, indeed, be- 
tween the villages and towns, except a difference in size. 

This was the condition of affairs during the early part 
of the Middle Ages, while feudalism was slowly arising, 
and the nobles were beating back the attacks of the North- 
men and other invaders. 

202 



LIFE IN MEDIEVAL TOWNS 



203 



247. Revival of Town Life. At length, in the tenth and 
eleventh centuries, danger from invaders ceased. Then men 
might travel from place to place, without constant danger 
of being robbed or slain. Commerce and manufactures be- 
gan slowly to revive, especially in the towns. With com- 
merce and manufactures, too, came riches. This was espe- 
cially true in Italy and Southern France, where the towns- 




A MEDIEVAL TOWN 

men were able, by their geographical position, to take part 
in the trade with Constantinople and Egypt, and also to 
gain money by carrying pilgrims in their ships to the Holy 
Land. With riches, also, came power; and with power 
came the desire to free themselves from the rule of their 
lord. 

So, all over western Europe, during the eleventh, twelfth, 
and thirteenth centuries, we find new towns arising 
and old ones getting the right to govern themselves. In 
Italy the towns gained power first; then in Southern 
France ; then in Northern France ; and then along the valley 
of the River Rhine, and the coasts of the Baltic Sea. Some- 
times the towns bought their freedom from their lords; 
sometimes they won it after long struggles and much fight- 



204 OLD WOKLD BACKGEOUND 

ing. Sometimes the nobles and the clergy were wise enough 
to join with the townsmen, and share in the benefits which 
the towns brought; sometimes they fought them foolishly 
and bitterly. 

In Italy and Germany the power of the kings was not 
great enough to make much difference one way or the other. 
In France the kings favored the towns against their lords, 
and used them to break down the power of the feudal 
nobles. Then, when the kings' power had become so strong 
that they no longer feared the nobles, they checked the 
power of the towns, lest they in turn might become power- 
ful and independent. 

Thus, in different ways and at different times, there grew 
up the cities of medieval Europe. 

248. What the Towns Did for the World. In Italy, there 
sprang up the free cities of Venice, Florence, Pisa, Genoa, 
and others, where scholars and artists were to arise and 
bring a new birth to learning and art; where, also, daring 
seamen were to be trained, like Columbus, Cabot, and 
Vespucius, to discover in later times the New World. In 
France the citizens showed their skill by building those 
beautiful Gothic cathedrals which are still so much admired. 
In the towns of Holland and Germany workmen invented 
and developed the art of printing. The civilization of mod- 
ern times, indeed, owes a great debt to these old medieval 
towns, and to their sturdy inhabitants. 

249. Privileges of the Towns. Let us see now what those 
privileges were which the townsmen got, and which en- 
abled them to help on the world's progress so much. To 
us these privileges would not seem very great. In hun- 
dreds of towns in France the lords granted only such rights 
as the following: 

1. The toAvnsmen shall pay only small fixed sums for the rent of their 
lands, and as a tax when they sell goods, etc. 



LIFE IN MEDIEVAL TOWNS 205 

2. They shall not be obliged to go to war for their lord, unless they 
can return the same day, if they choose. 

3. When they have lawsuits, the townsmen shall not be obliged to go 
outside the town to have them tried. 

4. No charge shall be made for the use of the town oven; and the 
townsmen may gather the dead wood in the lord's forest for fuel. 

5. The to^vnsmen shall be allowed to sell their property when they 
wish, and leave town without hindrance from the lord. 

6. Any peasant who remains a year and a day in the town, without 
being claimed by his lord, shall be free. 

In other places the townsmen got, in addition, the right 
to elect their own judges; and, in still others, they got the 
right to elect all their officers. 

Towns of this latter class were sometimes called "com- 
munes." Over them the lord had very little right, except 
to receive such sums of money as it was agreed should be 
paid to him. In some places, as in Italy, these communes 
became practically independent, and had as much power 
as the lords themselves. They made laws, and coined 
money, and had their vassals, and waged war, just as the 
lords did. But there was this important difference: in the 
communes the rights belonged to the citizens as a whole, 
and not to one person. This made all the citizens feel an 
interest in the town affairs, and produced an enterprising, 
determined spirit in them. At the same time, in using 
these rights, the citizens were trained in the art of self- 
government. In this way, the world was being prepared 
for a time when governments like ours — "of the people, for 
the people, and by the people" — should be possible. 

250. Struggles Within the Towns. But this was to come 
only after many, many years. The townsmen often used 
their power selfishly, and in the interest of their own fam- 
ilies, and their own class. At times the rich and powerful 
townsmen were as cruel and harsh toward the poorer and 
weaker classes as the feudal lords themselves. Fierce and 



206 



OLD WOELD BACKGEOUND 




ATTACK UPON A CITY IN THE LATER MIDDLE AGES 



LIFE IN MEDIEVAL TOWNS 207 

bitter struggles then broke out between the citizens who 
had power and those who had none. Often, too, there were 
great family quarrels, continued from generation to genera- 
tion, like the one which is told of in Shakespeare's play, 
Romeo and Juliet. 

It will not surprise you to learn that the communes 
everywhere, at last, lost their independence. Either they 
came under the rule of the king, as in France, or else, as 
happened in Italy, they fell into the power of some "tyrant" 
or local lord. But let us think of the earnest, busy life of 
these old townsmen, and their quaint surroundings, rather 
than of their weaknesses and mistakes. Imagine yourself 
a peasant lad fleeing from your lord, or coming for the first 
time to the market in the city. 

251. Town Walls and Streets. As we approach the city 
gates, we see that the walls are strong, and are crowned 
with turrets. The gate is defended with drawbridge and 
portcullis, like the entrance to a castle. Within are nar- 
row, winding streets with rows of tall-roofed houses, 
each with its garden attached. The houses themselves 
are more like our houses today, than like the Greek and 
Roman ones; for they have no courtyard in the interior 
and are several stories high. The roadways are often un- 
paved, and full of mud; and there are no sewers. If you 
walk the streets after nightfall, you must carry a torch to 
light your footsteps, for there are no street-lamps. There 
are no policemen ; but if you are out after dark, you must 
beware of the "city watch," who take turns in guarding 
the city, for they will make you give a strict account of 
yourself. 

252. Shops and Workmen. Now, however, it is day, and 
we need have no fear. Presently we come into the busi- 
ness parts of the city, and there we find the different trades 
grouped together in different streets. Here are the gold- 



208 



OLD WOELD BACKGROUI^D 



smiths, and there are the tanners; here the cloth merchants, 
and there the butchers; here the armorsmiths, and there 

the money-changers. The 
shops are all small and on 
the ground floor, with their 
wares exposed for sale in 
the open windows. 

Let us look in at one of 
the goldsmiths' shops. The 
shopkeeper and his wife are 
busily engaged, waiting on 
customers and inviting pas- 
sers-by to stop and examine 
their goods. Within we see 
several men and boys at 
work, making the goods 
which their master sells. 
There the gold is melted 
and refined; the right 
amount of alloy is mixed 
with it; then it is cast, 
beaten, and filed into the proper shape. Then, perhaps, the 
article is enameled, and jewels are set in it. 

All of these things are done in this one little shop; and 
so it is with each trade. The workmen must all begin at 
the beginning, and start with the rough material; and the 
"apprentices," as the boys are called, must learn each of 
the processes by which the raw material is turned into the 
finished article. 

Thus a long term of apprenticeship is necessary for each 
trade, lasting sometimes for ten years. During this time, 
the boys are fed, clothed, and lodged with their master's 
family, above the shop, and receive no pay. If they mis- 
behave, the master has the right to punish them; and if 




A MEDIEVAL SHOP 



LIFE IN MEDIEVAL TOWNS 209 

they run away, he can pursue them and bring them back. 
Their life, however, is not so hard as that of the peasant 
boys, for they are better fed and housed, and have more to 
look forward to. 

253. The Guilds. When their apprenticeship is finished, 
they will become full members of the "guild"' of their trade, 
and may work for whomever they please. For a while they 
may wander from city to city, working now for this master 
and now for that. In each city they will find the workers 
of their trade united into a guild, with a charter from the 
king, or other lord, which permits them to make rules for 
the carrying on of that business, and to shut out from it 
all persons who have not served a regular apprenticeship. 
So, in each important town, there are "craft guilds" of 
stonecutters, plasterers, carpenters, blacksmiths, weavers, 
and the like, as well as a "merchant guild," composed of 
those who trade with other places. 

The more ambitious boys will not be content with a mere 
workman's life. They will look forward to a time when 
they will have saved up money enough to start in business 
for themselves. Then they, too, will become masters, with 
workmen and apprentices under them; and perhaps, in 
course of time, if they grow in wealth and wisdom, they 
may be elected rulers over the city. 

254. The Cathedral Church. Let us leave the shops of the 
workers and pass on. As we wander about we find many 
churches and chapels ; and perhaps we come, after a while, 
to a great "cathedral" or bishop's church, rearing its lofty 
roof to the sky. No pains have been spared to make this 
as grand and imposing as possible; and we gaze upon its 
great height with awe, and wonder at the marvelously 
quaint and clever patterns in which the stone is carved. 

255. The Belfry or Town Hall. We leave this, also, after a 
time ; and then we come to the "belfry" or town-hall. This 



210 



OLD WORLD BACKGEOUND 



is the real center of the life of the city. Here is the strong 
square tower, like the "donjon" of a castle, where the towns- 





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CANTERBURY CATHEDRAL (England) 



men may make their last stand, in case an enemy succeeds 
in entering their walls, and they cannot beat him back in 
their narrow streets. 

On top of the tower is the bell, with watchmen always 
on the lookout to give the signal, in case of fire or other 
danger. The bell is also used for more peaceful purposes. 
It summons the citizens, from time to time, to public meet- 
ings. And at eight or nine o'clock in the evening, it sounds 
the "curfew" (French couvre feu, "cover fire") as a signal 
to cover the fires with ashes, and cease from the day's labors. 

Within the tower are dungeons for prisoners, and meet- 
ing rooms for the rulers of the city. There, also, are strong 



LIFE IN MEDIEVAL TOWNS 



211 



rooms, where the city money is kept, together with the great 
seal of the city. Lastly, there too is the charter which gives 
the city its liberties — the most precious of all the city's 
possessions. 

256. The Great Fairs. Even in ordinary times the city 
presents a bustling, busy appearance. If it is a town which 
holds a fair once or twice a year, what shall we say of it 
then? For several weeks, at such times, the city is one vast 
bazaar. Strange merchants come from all parts of the land 
to set up their booths and stalls along the streets, and the 
city shops are crowded with goods. From miles about, the 
people throng in to buy the things they need. 




A FAIR IN THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY 

Above is a picture of the streets of a city during fair- 
time, in the thirteenth century. In the middle of the pic- 
ture, we see a townsman and his wife returning home after 
making their purchases. Behind them are a knight and 
his attendant, on horseback, picking their way through the 
crowd. On the right hand side of the street is the shop 



212 OLD WOELD BACKGEOUND 

of a cloth merchant, and we see the merchant and his wife 
showing goods to customers, while workmen are unpack- 
ing a box in the street. Next door is a tavern, with its sign 
hung out; and near this we see a cross, which some pious 
person has erected at the street corner. On the left-hand 
side of the street we see a cripple begging for alms. Back 
of him is another cloth -merchant's shop; and next to this 
is a money-changer's table, where a group of people are hav- 
ing money weighed, to see that there is no cheating in the 
payment. Beyond this is an elevated stage, on which a 
company of tumblers and jugglers are performing, with a 
crowd of people about them. In the background we see 
some tall-roofed houses, topped with turrets; and beyond 
these we can just make out the spire of a church rising to 
the sky. 

This is indeed a busy scene, and it is a picture with which 
we may fittingly close our account. It well shows the 
energy and the activity which, during the later Middle 
Ages, made the towns the starting-place for so many im- 
portant movements. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Make a list of the things which caused the decline of the towns at 

the beginning of the Middle Ages. 

2. Make another list of the things which helped their growth in num- 

bers, wealth, and powers of self-government. 

3. Imagine yourself an apprentice lad, and write an account of your 

life. 

4. Study the picture on page 211, and write a letter describing an 

imaginary visit to a fair in the Middle Ages. 



CHAPTER XXIX 
THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES 

Points to Be Noted 

Power of the Church in the Middle Ages; its organization; Pope; 
archbishops and bishops; priests; their duties. 

Why men became monks; tlie rule of St. Benedict; dress of tlie monks; 

friars and nuns. 
The monastery buildings and lands; plan of a monastery. 
Hours for worship ; labors and humility of the monks ; they copy books ; 

their services to education; histories written by the monks. 
The three vows taken by a monk; enforcement of the rules; how one 

became a monk; a letter from a novice. 

257. The Power of the Church. In an earlier chapter you 
have seen that, even before the Teutons overthrew the 
Roman Empire, the Christian Church had become a great 
and powerful organization. In the troubled centuries 
which followed that overthrow, the Church grew ever 
stronger. While all else made for lawlessness and disorder, 
it alone preached order, union, and justice. When it con- 
verted the barbarians, it presented to cruel warriors like 
Clovis an ideal of meekness and self-sacrifice. In time the 
Church was granted many rights and privileges. Its priests 
were sacred, and whoever touched them or seized its prop- 
erty was declared accursed. The interdict (see page 169) 
was only one of many weapons which it possessed. A 
large part of the government was in its hands. It humbled 
the proudest kings and emperors, and at times its head 
forced them to become his vassals, as we have seen in the 
case of King John of England. All through the Middle 
Ages the Church exercised a power much greater than it 
does today. 

213 



214 



OLD WOELD BACKGEOUND 




THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES 215 

258. Its Organization. Much of the strength and order 
which had marked the government of the Roman Empire 
passed into the organization of the Christian Church. At its 
head stood the Pope. He was bishop of Rome, and as such 
was successor to Saint Peter, to whom it was beUeved that 
Christ had given power over His Church on earth. Below 
the Pope were the archbishops and 
bishops, each of whom ruled over an 
important district in the Church. The 
church building in which a bishop or 
archbishop held his services was 
called a cathedral; in the preceding 
chapter we have read of the grandeur 
and beauty of many of these. Below 
the bishops and archbishops were the 
parish priests. There was at least 
one priest in every considerable vil- 
lage. 

Pope, bishops, and priests were all 
part of the "clergy," and were all 
alike concerned in teaching the truths 
of the Christian religion to the peo- 
ple. They held services in the head of a bishop-s 
churches, solemnized marriages, bap- 
tized children, buried the dead, consoled the living. They 
were the ones of the clergy who especially brought the 
Christian religion into the lives of the people. 

259. Monks, Friars, and Nuns. But there was another 
branch also of the clergy, as we have seen, who withdrew 
from the world and led their lives and served God apart. 
These were the monks. In the Middle Ages men thought 
that storms and lightning, famine and sickness, were signs 
of the wrath of God, or were the work of evil spirits. The 
world was a terrible place to them; and they felt that God 




216 OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 

was pleased when they renounced it, and voluntarily led 
lives of hardship and self-denial. The result was that great 
numbers became monks, and the monasteries became a most 
important part of the medieval Church. In Western 
Europe most of the monasteries were governed by a set of 
rules which had been drawn up in Italy (in 529 a.d.), by a 
monk named Benedict, and which was called the Benedic- 
tine Rule. 

The rule prescribed that the dress of the monks should be 
of coarse woolen cloth, with a cowl or hood which could be 
pulled up to protect the head; and about the waist a cord 
was worn for a girdle. The gown of the Benedictines was 
usually black, so they were called "black monks." As the 
centuries went by, new orders of monks were founded, with 
new rules. In this way arose "white monks," and monks of 
other names. 

In addition, orders of "friars" were founded, especially 
by Saint Francis and by Saint Dominic. These were like 
the monks in many ways, but they lived more in the world, 
preaching, teaching, and caring for the sick. The friars also 
were called "black friars," '"'gray friars," or "white friars," 
according to the color of their dress. 

Besides the orders for men, there were also orders of 
"nuns" for women. Saint Scholastica, the friend of Saint 
Benedict, and Saint Clara, the friend of Saint Francis, were 
the founders of two important orders of nuns. In some 
places in the Middle Ages nunneries became almost as com- 
mon as monasteries. 

260. The Monasteries. Let us try now to discover what a 
Benedictine monastery was like. One of Benedict's rules 
provided that every monastery should be so arranged that 
everything the monks needed would be in the monastery 
itself, so that there should be no need for the monks to go 
outside; "for this," said Benedict, "is not at all good for 



THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES 



217 



their souls." Each monastery, therefore, became a settle- 
ment complete in itself. It had not only its halls, where the 
monks ate and slept, and its own church, but also its own 
mill, its own bake-oven, and its own workshops, where the 
monks made the things which they needed. 

In order to shut out the world, and to protect the monas- 
tery against robbers, the buildings were surrounded by a 




A MEDIEVAL MONASTERY 

strong wall. Outside of this lay the fields of the monastery, 
where the monks themselves raised the grain they needed, 
or which were tilled for them by peasants, in the same way 
that the lands of the lords were tilled. Finally, there was 
the woodland where the swine were herded, and the pasture 
lands where the cattle and sheep were sent to graze. 

The amount of land belonging to a monastery was often 
large. Nobles and kings frequently gave gifts of land, and 
the monks in return prayed for their souls. Sometimes, when 
the land came into the possession of the monks, it was 
covered with swamps or forests. By unwearying labor the 



218 



OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 



swamps were drained and the forests felled, and soon smiling 
fields appeared where before there was only a wilderness. 

261. Plan of a Medieval Monastery. On the preceding page 
is a picture of a monastery, at the close of the Middle 
Ages. There we see the wall, surrounded by a ditch, which 
inclosed the buildings and protected the monastery from at- 
tack. To enter the inclosure, we must cross the bridge and 
present ourselves at the gate. When we have passed this, 
we see on the left stables for cattle and horses, while on the 
right are gardens of herbs for the cure of the sick. Near by 
is the monks' graveyard, with the graves marked by little 
crosses. 

In the center of the inclosure are workshops, where the 
monks work at different trades. The tall building, with the 
spires crowned with the figures of saints, is the church, where 
the monks hold services at regular intervals throughout the 
day and night. 

Adjoining this, in the form of a square, are the buildings 
in which the monks sleep and eat. This is the "cloister," 

and it is the principal part 
of the monastery. In south- 
ern lands, this inner square 
or cloister was usually sur- 
rounded on all sides by a 
porch or piazza, the roof of 
which was supported by 
fj long rows of pillars. Here 
the monks might pace to 
and fro, in quiet talk, when 
the duties of worship and labor did not occupy their time. 
In addition to these buildings, there are many others 
which we cannot stop to describe. Some are used to carry 
on the work of the monastery; some are for the use of the 
abbot, who is the ruler of the monks; some are hospitals for 




A FRENCH CLOISTER 



THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES 219 

the sick; and some contain guest chambers, where travelers 
are lodged over night. 

262. Life of the Monks. In the guest chambers, the travel- 
ers may sleep undisturbed all the night through. It is not 
so with the monks. They must begin their worship long 
before the sun is up. Soon after midnight the bell of the 
monastery rings, the monks arise from their hard beds, and 
gather in the church, to recite prayers, read portions of the 
Bible and sing Psalms. Not less than twelve of the Psalms 
of the Old Testament must be read each night, at this serv- 
ice. At daybreak the bell rings again, and once more the 
monks gather in the church. This is the first of the seven 
services which are held during the day. The others come 
at seven o'clock in the morning, nine o'clock, at noon, at 
three in the afternoon, at six o'clock, and at bedtime. At 
each of these there are prayers, reading from the Scriptures, 
and chanting of Psalms. Latin is the only language used in 
the church services of the West in the Middle Ages; the 
Bible is read, the Psalms sung, and the prayers recited in 
this tongue. The services are so arranged that in the course 
of every week the entire Psalter, or Psalm book, is gone 
through; then, at the Sunday night service, they began 
again. 

Besides attending these services, there were many other 
things which the monks must do. "Idleness," wrote Saint 
Benedict, "is the enemy of the soul" ; so he arranged that, 
at fixed hours during the day, the monks should labor with 
their hands. Some plowed the fields, harrowed them, and 
planted and harvested the grain. Others worked at various 
trades in the workshops of the monasteries. If any brother 
showed too much pride in his work, and put himself above 
the others because of his skill, he was made to work at somor 
thing else. The monks had to be humble at all times. 

"A monk," said Benedict, "must always show humility — 



220 



OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 



not only in his heart, but with his body also. This is so 
whether he is at work or at prayer; whether he is in the 
monastery, in the garden, in the road, or in the fields. Every- 
where — sitting, walking, or standing — let him always be 
with head bowed, his looks fixed upon the ground; and let 
him remember every hour that he is guilty of his sins." 

263. The Monks Copy Books. One of the most useful 
labors which the monks performed was the copying and 
writing of books. 

At certain hours of the day, especially on Sundays, the 
brothers were required by Benedict's rule to read and to 

study. In the Middle Ages, 
of course, there were no 
printing presses, and all 
books were "manuscript" — 
that is, they were copied, a 
letter at a time, by hand. 
So, in each monastery, there 
was a writing room or 
"scriptorium," where some 
of the monks worked at 
copying manuscripts. 
The writing was usually 
done on skins of parchment. These the monks cut to the 
size of the page, rubbing the surface smooth with pumice 
stone. Then the margins were marked, and the lines ruled, 
with sharp awls. The writing was done with pens made of 
quills or of reeds, and with ink made of soot mixed with 
gum and acid. 

The greatest care was used in forming each letter, and at 
the beginning of the chapters a large initial was made. 
Sometimes these initials were really pictures, beautifully 
"illuminated" in blue, gold, and crimson. All this required 
skill and great pains. 



p 


*^ 


|CC" 


' '"'"'i 


RB^^B 


• -^ ■ 


■.^Jl 


p; 


l^ 


^^Pj 


Mi 


Wdfpj 


mi 


dL^^ 


^K^^H 




Wi 


H 


mm 


[ b^^l 


Hr 


m| 


m^ 







MONK IN SCRIPTORIUM 



THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES 221 

"He who does not know how to write," wrote a monk at 
the end of one manuscript, "imagines that it is no labor; 
but, though only three fingers hold the pen, the whole body 
grows weary." 

And another one wrote: "I pray you, good readers who 
may use this book, do not forget him who copied it. It 
was a poor brother named Louis, who while he copied the 
volume (which was brought from a foreign country) en- 
dured the cold, and was obliged to finish in the night what 
he could not write by day." 

The monks by copying books did a great service to the 
world, for it was in this way that many valuable works 
were preserved during the dark ages of the barbarian in- 
vasions, when violence and ignorance spread, and the love 
of learning almost died out. 

264. Their Services to Education. In other ways, also, the 
monks helped the cause of learning. At a time when no 
one else took the trouble, or knew how to write a history 
of the things that were going on, the monks in most of the 
great monasteries wrote "annals" or "chronicles" in which 
the events of each year were set down. And at a time when 
there were no schools except those provided by the Church, 
the monks taught boys to read and to write, so that there 
might always be learned men to carry on the work of re- 
ligion. The education which they gave, and the books 
which they wrote, were of course in Latin, like the services 
of the Church; for this was the universal language of 
educated men. 

The histories which the monks wrote were, no doubt, 
very poor ones, and the schools were not very good; but 
they were much better than none at all. Here is what a 
monk wrote in the "annals" of his monastery, as the his- 
tory of the year 807 ; it will show us something about both 
the histories and the schools: 



222 



OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 



"807. Grimoald, duke of Beneventum, died; and there was great 
sickness in the monastery of Saint Boniface, so that many of the 
youfiger brothers died. The boys of the monastery school beat their 
teacher, and ran away." 

That is all we are told. Were the boys just unruly and 
restless? Did they rebel at the tasks at school, at a time 
when their king was waging mighty wars; and 
did they long to become knights and warriors, 
instead of priests and monks? Or was it on ac- 
count of the sickness that they ran away? We 

cannot tell. That is the 
way it is with many 
things in the Middle 
Ages. Most of what we 
know about the history 
of that time we learn 
from the "chronicles" 
kept by the monks, and 
these do not tell us 
nearly all that we should 
like to know. 

265. The Three Vows of 

Monks. The three most 

important things which 

were required of the 

monks were that they 

should have no property 

of their own, that they should not marry, and 

that they should obey those who were placed 

over them. 

"A monk," said Benedict, "should have abso- 
lutely nothing, neither a book, nor a tablet, nor a pen." 
Even the clothes which he wore were the property of the 
monastery. If any gifts were sent him by his friends or 




The picture shows several young 
men receiving the "tonsure" — 
that is, having the hair clipped 
from the top of their heads as a 
sign that they are to become 
priests 



THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES 223 

relatives, he must turn them over to the abbot for the 
use of the monastery as a whole. The rule of obedience 
required that a monk, when ordered to do a thing, should 
do it without delay; and if impossible things were com- 
manded, he must at least make the attempt. The rule 
about marrying was equally strict ; and in some monasteries 
it was counted a sin even to look upon a woman. 

Other rules forbade the monks to talk at certain times of 
the day and in their sleeping halls. For fear lest they might 
forget themselves at the table. Saint Benedict ordered that 
one of the brethren should always read aloud at meals, from 
some holy book. All were required to live on the simplest 
and plainest food. 

The rules, indeed, were so strict that it was often difl&cult 
to enforce them, especially after the monasteries became 
rich and powerful. Then, although the monks might not 
have any property of their own, they enjoyed vast riches 
belonging to the monastery as a whole, and often lived in 
luxury and idleness. When this happened, there was usu- 
ally a reaction, and a new order of monks arose with stricter 
rules. So, we have times of zeal and strict enforcement of 
the rules, followed by periods of decay; and these, in turn, 
followed by new periods of strictness. This went on to the 
close of the Middle Ages, when many of the monasteries 
were done away with. 

266. How One Became a Monk. When a person wished to 
become a monk, he had first to go through a trial. He must 
become a "novice" and live in a monastery, under its rules, 
for a year ; then, if he was still of the same mind, he took 
the vows of Poverty, Chastity, and Obedience. "From that 
day forth," says the rule of Saint Benedict, "he shall not be 
allowed to depart from the monastery, nor to shake from his 
neck the yoke of the rule; for, after so long delay, he was 
at liberty either to receive or to refuse it." 



224 OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 

When the monasteries had become corrupt, some men no 
doubt became monks in order that they might live in idle- 
ness and luxury. But let us remember rather the many 
men who became monks because they believed that this was 
the best way to serve God. 

267. Letter of a Novice. Let us think in closing of one 
of the best of the monasteries of the Middle Ages, and let 
us look at its life through the eyes of a noble young novice. 
The monastery was in France, and its abbot, Saint Bernard, 
was famous throughout the Christian world for his piety 
and zeal. Of this monastery the novice writes: 

"I watch the monks at their daily services, and at their 
nightly vigils from midnight to the dawn; and as I hear 
them singing so holily and unwearyingly, they seem to me 
more like angels than men. Some of them have been 
bishops or rulers, or else have been famous for their rank 
and knowledge; now all are equal, and no one is higher or 
lower than any other. I see them in the gardens with the 
hoe, in the meadows with fork and rake, in the forests with 
the ax. When I remember what they have been, and con- 
sider their present condition and work, their poor and ill- 
made clothes, my heart tells me that they are not the dull 
and speechless beings they seem, but that their life is hid 
with Christ in the heavens. 

"Farewell ! God willing, on the next Sunday after Ascen- 
sion Day, I, too, shall put on the armor of my profession as 
a monk." 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Make a list of the waj's in which the monks helped the world. 

2. Why do not so many persons become monks and nuns now as in the 

Middle Ages? 



CHAPTER XXX 
PILGRIMAGES OF THE MIDDLE AGES 

Points to Be Noted 

Places to which pilgrimages were made; why men went on pilgi'images. 

Dress of the pilgrims; what they carried; how they ti'aveled; where 
tliey were entertained. 

Pilgrimages over sea; difficulties and dangers; preparations. 

Completion of a pilgrimage; medals and palm branches; offerings; 
nmnber of pilgrims; influence. 

Rise and spread of Mohammedanism; date; coming of the Turks; dif- 
ference which this made. 

Request of the Eastern Emperor for aid ; why men went on Crusades. 

268. Pilgrims and Shrines. Almost the only traveling to 
and fro in the Middle Ages — especially before the revival 
of commerce, which we have mentioned in describing the life 
in the towns — was that of the pilgrims and crusaders. The 
pilgrims were men, and sometimes women, who traveled 
long distances in order to visit spots made holy by their con- 
nection with the Christian religion. Some of these places 
were in Europe, such as the tomb of Sahit Thomas Becket, 
at Canterbury, in England, or that of Saint James of Com- 
postella, in Spain ; or those of the Apostles Peter and Paul, 
in Rome. More important than these, however, were the 
holy places of Palestine, which are connected with the life 
and death of Jesus Christ. 

269. Why Pilgrimages Were Made. At a very early time 
men began to visit such holy spots. These visits made more 
real to the pilgrims the lives and teachings of Christ and 
the saints. Men also believed that their prayers would more 
certainly be heard when they were uttered from a place 
made sacred by the life of some holy man, and that their 
bodies would thus be healed from disease and their souls 

225 



226 



OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 



cleansed from sin. Love of adventure, a restless spirit, and 
a desire to see new lands also impelled men to make pil- 
grimages. Consequently, just as soon as it became safe to 
travel at all, men began to go in constantly increasing 
numbers to pilgrim shrines. 

270. Dress of the Pilgrims. The pilgrims were under the 
protection of the Church, and wore a special dress. Usually 
this consisted of a gray woolen robe, 
with a hood which could be pulled over 
the head. The pilgrim wore a broad- 
brimmed hat, and carried a staff, a sack, 
and a gourd cup to drink out of. At 
first the pilgrims lodged in the monas- 
teries; but as their numbers increased, 
separate houses were established for 
their entertainment, especially on the 
great Alpine passes, in the chief cities in 
Italy, and in Jerusalem. 

271. Traveling" on Land. By land the 
pilgrims usually traveled on foot; 
though nobles often went on horseback, 
with a considerable company of follow- 
ers, and in Palestine donkeys were fre- 
quently used. Pilgrims returning from 
the Holy Land usually carried palm-branches and hence 
were called ''palmers." In England there was a road which, 
from the number of pilgrims who traveled over it, was called 
"the palmer's way." On some much-traveled roads there 
were regular stations where horses could be hired, which 
were then given up at the next station. The road which led 
to Canterbury was the great highroad to the Continent, and 
along it were many inns at which travelers could refresh 
themselves, and chapels at which they could stop to say 
prayers and perform their devotions. Persons of all ranks, 




A PILGRIM 



PILGRIMAGES IN THE MIDDLE AGES 227 

both men and women, met together in these inns; and the 
long evenings were given up to stories of adventures by the 
way, and to strange tales heard from others. The English 
poet Chaucer, in his poem The Canterbury Tales, pictures 
for us such a company gathered together on the pilgrimage 
to the tomb of Saint Thomas of Canterbury, and gives us 
the stories which each of the travelers is supposed to have 
told. 




CANTERBURY PILGRIMS 

272. Pilgrimagfes Oversea. On more distant pilgrimages 
the difficulties and dangers, and also the attractions, were 
much greater. The roads were bad and unsafe, rivers were 
often difficult to cross, the mountain passes fatiguing and 
dangerous. Worst of all were the sea voyages, which at 
times could not be avoided. The vessels were small, and 
the pilgrims closely crowded together ; the food was bad and 
the smells intolerable; most of the pilgrims were unaccus- 
tomed to the sea, and became dreadfully seasick. Books were 
written as guides to the pilgrims, telling them how much 
they should pay for their sea-passage from Venice to the 
Holy Land, and the preparations they should make for the 
voyage. They must take with them a feather bed, with 
pillows, sheets, and blankets; they should take some provi- 
sions for their private use, together with necessary medi- 
cines; and when they landed they should beware alike of 
foreign fruits and robbers. A list of phrases in foreign 



228 OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 

tongues was usually given, so that the pilgrim in a strange 
land might ask his way, and purchase necessary things. 

When one had completed his pilgrimage, he usually 
bought at the shrine of the saint a pewter medal, sometimes 
shaped like a cockleshell, on which was stamped the name of 
the saint together with some pious words. This was sewed 
on the hat or worn on the breast, as a sign that one had 
completed his pilgrimage. Often one met with men who 
wore many such medals, from many different shrines. On 
leaving a shrine, one made an offering of money to the saint ; 
and many shrines became very rich from the silver, gold, and 
precious objects offered by worshipers who visited them. 
For a long time the stories which the pilgrims told of their 
travels gave the people of Western Europe almost their 
only knowledge of distant lands and nations. 

As time went on, the number of persons who went on 
pilgrimages became larger and larger. The greatest single 
company which went to the Holy Land, before the Cru- 
sades, set out from Germany in the year 1064, and num- 
bered 7000 persons. The danger which attended such ex- 
peditions is seen from the fact that out of this number 
only 2000 ever returned to their homes. The others per- 
ished on the way — from sickness, hardship, accident, and 
conflicts with hostile peoples. 

The Crusades differed from these peaceful pilgrimages in 
that they were armed attempts to restore Jerusalem and the 
Holy Land to the rule of the Christians. 

273. Rise and Spread of Mohammedanism. In the days of 
Christ and the Apostles, Palestine was a part of the Roman 
Empire; but in the seventh century after Christ it passed 
under the rule of the Arabs, who had recently established 
a new religion. This religion we call Mohammedanism, 
from its founder, Mohammed. He had rescued the Arabs 
from idolatry, and had taught them that there was but one 



PILGRIMAGES IN THE MIDDLE AGES 229 

God (Allah), of whom he (Mohammed) was the Prophet. 
In less than a hundred years from Mohammed's death, in 
632, his followers had conquered a vast empire, which in- 
cluded most of Western Asia, all of Northern Africa, and 
the peninsula of Spain in Western Europe. But in Eastern 
Europe what was left of the old Roman Empire proved too 
strong for them. The strongly fortified city of Constanti- 
nople there held them in check. Although the Eastern Em- 
perors were not able to save Palestine, they did save East- 
ern Europe for several centuries from Mohammedan con- 
quest. 

For a time the Christians did not trouble themselves very 
much over the fact that the religion of Mohammed was es- 
tablished in Palestine side by side with that of Christ. They 
were too busy at home, fighting Northmen and working out 
the institutions under which they were to live, to give much 
attention to things so far away. The Arabs, moreover, re- 
spected the holy places of the Christians, and allowed pil- 
grims to Jerusalem to come and to go without much harm 
or hindrance. 

274. Conquests of the Turks. In the eleventh century, 
however, this was all changed. A new race, called Turks, 
then appeared from the wilds of Central Asia, became con- 
verted to Mohammedanism, and took the government of 
those lands into their own hands. They were a rude, fierce 
people, very unlike the cultured Arabs. They showed the 
greatest contempt for the Christians and their religion. Pil- 
grims who returned from Jerusalem told of many outrages 
which the Turks were committing on the Christians and on 
their holy places. The result was a great outburst of in- 
dignation in Western Europe. 

The Turks also were a more w^arlike people than the 
Arabs of that day, and within a short time they had won 
lands from the Eastern Empire which the Arabs had never 



230 OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 

been able to conquer. The safety of Constantinople itself 
was threatened. "From Jerusalem to the Aegean Sea," 
wrote the Eastern Emperor, "the Turkish hordes have mas- 
tered all. Their galleys sweep the Black Sea and the Medi- 
terranean, and threaten the imperial city itself." 

275. The Eastern Emperor Asks for Aid. To meet this 
danger, the Emperor wrote to the Pope asking for aid 
against the Turks. Quieter times had now come in the 
West, and rulers and peoples were in a mood to grant this 
request. Religious zeal, love of adventure, and the hope of 
winning rich lands and booty alike urged them to this step. 
The result was that great movement, productive of many 
unforeseen results, which we call the Crusades. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. In what ways are the visits which Americans now make to foreign 

lands like medieval pilgrimages ? In what ways are they unlike ? 

2. Find out Avhat you can about Saint Thomas of Canterbury and the 

pilgrimages to his tomb. 

3. Imagine yourself a pilgrim going to the Holy Land, and describe 

your adventures. 

4. Read an account of Mohammed and the religion which he founded. 

5. In what countries is Mohammedanism today the chief religion? 



CHAPTER XXXI 
THE FIRST CRUSADE 

Points to Be Noted 

Pope Urban II calls the First Crusade; preparations for it. 

Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless set out; their followers 
destroyed. 

The princes make ready; their march to Constantinople; their wonder 
at its riches; they cross into Asia Minor. 

Letter from a Crusader; he tells of liis gains; the siege of Antioch; 
sufferings of the Crusaders; their victories over the Turks. 

Finding of the Holy Lance; the Crusaders arrive before Jerusalem; 
they capture the city; date; treatment of its defenders; the Cru- 
saders' vows fulfilled. 

276. Pope Urban Calls a Crusade (1095). Pope Urban II 
called a council of clergy and nobles to meet at Clermont, 
in France, in 1095 ; and to them he presented the request of 
the Eastern Emperor for aid. 

Most of those present were French, so Urban, who was 
himself a Frenchman, spoke to them in their own tongue. 
He told them of the danger to Constantinople and of the 
sad state of Jerusalem, while the western peoples were 
quarreling and fighting among themselves. In aU that 
region, he said, Christians had been led off into slavery, their 
homes laid waste, and their churches overthrown. Then he 
appealed to the pride of his hearers, and urged them to 
rescue the Holy Sepulcher of Christ from the hands of the 
Mohammedans. 

"Christ himself," he cried, "will be your leader when you 
fight for Jerusalem ! Let your quarrels cease, and turn your 
arms against the accursed Turks. In this way you will re- 
turn home victorious, and laden with the wealth of your 
foes ; or, if you fall in battle, you will receive an everlasting 
reward!" To this appeal the Council, with one accord, 

231 



232 



OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 



made answer: "It is the will of God ! It is the will of God!" 
From all sides they hastened to give their names for the 
holy war. Each person who promised to go was given a 
cross of red cloth, which he was to wear upon his breast 

going to the Holy Land, and on his 
back returning. To those who 
"took the cross," the name "Cru- 
saders" was given, from the Latin 
word which means cross. 

277. Preparations for This Cru- 
sade. The winter following the 
Council was spent in getting 
ready for the Crusade. All 
classes showed the greatest zeal. 
Preachers went about among the 
people calling upon rich and 
poor, noble and peasant alike, to 
help free the Holy Land. Whole 
villages, towns, and cities were 
emptied of their inhabitants to 
join the Crusade. Many sold all they had to get the means 
to go ; and thieves, robbers, and other wicked men promised 
to leave their wickedness and aid in rescuing the tomb of 
Christ Jesus from the infidels. 

278. The Crusade of the People. The time set for the 
starting of the Crusade was the early summer of the year 
1096. But the common people could not wait so long. 
Under a monk named Peter the Hermit, and a poor knight 
called Walter the Penniless, great companies from Ger- 
many and France set out before that time. They had al- 
most no money, they were unorganized, and there was no 
discipline or obedience in the multitude. The route which 
they took was down the River Danube, through the king- 
doms of the Hungarians and Bulgarians, and so to Con- 




A CRUSADER 



THE FIRST CRUSADE 233 

stantinople. Few of the people or their leaders had any 
idea of the distance, and as each new city came in sight 
many cried out: "Is this Constantinople?" 

In Hungary and Bulgaria they were attacked because 
they plundered the country as they passed through, and 
many were slain. When they reached Constantinople, some 
of the unruly company set fire to buildings near the city, 
while others stripped off sheets of lead from the roofs of 
churches to sell to Greek merchants. The Emperor has- 
tened to get rid of his unwelcome guests bj-- sending them 
across into Asia Minor. There within a few months "Walter 
and most of his followers were slain by the Turks, and the 
expedition came to a sorrowful end. 

279. The Crusade of the Princes. Meanwhile the princes 
from France, Germany, and Italy were making ready their 
expeditions. While some Norman lords of Southern Italy 
were engaged in one of their many wars, a messenger came 
to them with the news that countless warriors of France 
had started on the way to Jerusalem, and invited them to 
join the expedition. 

''What are their weapons, what their badge, what their 
war cry?" asked one of the Normans. 

"Our weapons," replied the messenger, "are those best 
suited to war ; our badge, the cross of Christ ; our war cry, 
'It is the will of God! It is the will of God!' " 

When he heard these words, the Norman tore from his 
shoulders his costly red cloak, and with his own hands he 
made crosses from it for all who would follow him to the 
Holy Land. There he became one of the most famous and 
renowned of the Crusaders; and his followers showed that 
they could be as brave, as enterprising, and as skillful in 
fighting for the Holy Land as they had been before in fight- 
ing for lands and goods in France, in England, and in Italy. 

The Crusaders set out in five different companies. The 



234 



OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 



first started in August, 1096 ; the last did not join the others, 
near Constantinople, until the next summer. The com- 
panies were made up of trained and armed knights, with 
chosen leaders, and they had made careful preparations for 
the expedition. They did not suffer so severely, therefore, 
as did the poor ignorant people led by Walter the Penni- 
less. It was only after many hardships, however, that the 
Crusaders finally arrived at Constantinople. 




CvrV;.» ,^. ' 



CRUSADERS ON THE MARCH 






280. The Crusaders Reach Constantinople (1096). In the 

lands north of the Alps, there were at that time none of the 
vast and richly ornamented churches which later arose; all 
the buildings were poor, and lacking in stateliness and 
beauty. Constantinople, however, was the most beautiful 
city of the world ; so the sight of it filled the Crusaders with 
awe and admiration. "Oh, how great a city it is!" wrote 
one of their number; "how noble and beautiful! What 
wondrously wrought monasteries and palaces are therein! 
What marvels everywhere in street and square! It would 
be tedious to recite its wealth in all precious things, in gold 
and silver, in cloaks of many shapes, and saintly relics. For 
to this place ships bring all things that man may require." 



THE FIRST CRUSADE 



235 



Now that these sturdy warriors of the West were actually 
in Constantinople, the Greek Emperor began to fear lest 
they might prove more troublesome to his empire than the 
Turks themselves. 

"Some of the Crusaders," wrote the Emperor's daughter, 
"were guileless men and women marching in all simplicity 
to worship at the tomb of Christ. But there were others of 
a more wicked kind. Such men had but one object, and 
this was to get possession of the Emperor's capital." 




MAP OF THE CRUSADES 



281. They Cross into Asia Minor. After much suspicion on 
both sides, and many disputes, the Emperor got the 
"Franks," as the Crusaders were called, safely away from 
the city and over into Asia Minor. There at last they met 
the Turks. At first the latter rushed joyously into battle, 
dragging ropes with which to bind the Christians captive; 
but soon they found that the "Franks" were more than a 
match for them. The city of Nicaea was taken after hard 
fighting, and the Crusaders pressed on to other and greater 
victories. 



236 OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 

282. A Letter from a Crusader. Letter-writing was not 
nearly so common in those days as it is now; but some of 
the Crusaders wrote home, telling of their deeds. A few of 
these letters have come down to us across the centuries. 
In order that you may learn what the Crusaders were think- 
ing and feeling, as well as what they were doing, one of 
these is given here. The writer was a rich and power- 
ful noble of France, and the letter was written while the 
army was laying siege to the strongly walled city of Antioch. 

Count Stephen to Adele, his sweetest and most amiable wife, to his 

dear children, and to all his vassals of all ranks, — his greeting and 

blessings : 

You may be very sure, dearest, that the messenger whom I send left 
me before Antioch safe and unharmed, and through God's grace in the 
greatest prosperity. Ah-eady at that time we had been continuously 
advancing for twenty-three weeks toward the home of our Lord Jesus. 
You may know for certain, my beloved, that of gold, silver, and many 
other kinds of riches I now have twice as much as your love had wished 
for me when I left you. 

You have certainly heard that, after the capture of the city of 
Nicaea, we fought a great battle with the faithless Turks, and by God's 
aid conquered them. Next we conquered for the Lord all the Sultanate 
of Roum, and afterwards Cappadocia. Thence, continually following 
the wicked Turks, we drove them through the midst of Armenia, as far 
as the great River Euphrates. Having left all their baggage and beasts 
of burden on the bank, they fled across the river into Arabia. 

Some of the bolder of the Turkish soldiers, however, entered Syria 
and hastened by forced marches, night and day, to enter the royal city 
of Antioch before our approach. The whole army of God, learning 
this, gave due praise and thanks to the all-powerful Lord. Hastening 
with great joy to Antioch, we besieged it, and had many conflicts there 
with the Turks. Seven times we fought, with the fiercest courage and 
under the leadership of Christ, against the citizens of Antioch and the 
innumerable troops which were coming to its aid. In all these seven 
battles, by the aid of the Lord God, we conquered, and assuredly killed 
an innumerable host of them. In those battles, indeed, and in very 
many attacks made upon the city, many of our brethren and followers 
were killed, and their souls were borne to the joys of Paradise. 



THE FIRST CRUSADE 237 

In fighting against these enemies of God and of our own, we have by 
God's grace endured many sufferings and innumerable evils up to the 
present tiijie. Many have already exhausted all their resources in this 
very holy expedition. Veiy many of our Franks, indeed, would have 
met death from starvation, if the mercy of God, and our money, had 
not helped them. Before the city of Antioch, and indeed throughout 
the whole winter, we suffered for our Lord Christ from excessive cold 
and great torrents of rain. What some say about the impossibility of 
bearing the heat of the sun throughout Syria is untrue, for the winter 
here is very similar to our winter in the West. 

When the Emir of Antioch — that is, its prince and lord — perceived 
that he was hard pressed by us, he sent his son to the prince who holds 
Jerusalem, and to the prince of Damascus, and to three other princes. 
Tliese five Emirs, with 12,000 picked Turkish horsemen, suddenly came 
to aid the inhabitants of Antioch. We, indeed, ignorant of this, had 
sent many of our soldiers away to the cities and fortresses; for there 
are one hundred and sixty-five cities and fortresses throughout Syria 
which are in our power. But a little before they reached the city, we 
attacked them at three leagues' distance, with seven hundred soldiers. 
God surely fought for us against them ; for on that day we conquered 
them and killed an innumerable multitude; and we carried back to the 
army more than two hundred of their heads in order that the people 
might rejoice on that account. 

These things which I write to you are only a few, dearest, of the 
many deeds which we have done. And because I am not able to tell 
you, dearest, what is in my mind, I charge you to do right, to watch 
carefully over your land, to do your duty as you ought to your children 
and your vassals. You will certainly see me just as soon as I can 
possibly return to you. Farewell. 

283. The Capture of Antioch. The capture of Antioch was 
the hardest task that the Crusaders had to perform, and it 
was not until three months later that the city was finally- 
safe in their hands. Meanwhile many of the Crusaders 
became discouraged and started for home. 

At this trying time, a priest declared that it had been re- 
vealed to him in a dream, three times repeated, that the 
head of the spear which had pierced our Lord's side lay 
buried near one of the altars of a church near by; and it 



238 OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 

was further revealed, he said, that if this was found and 
borne at the head of the army, victory would surely follow. 
After long search, and much prayer and fasting, the "Holy 
Lance" was found. Then great joy and new courage arose 
among the Christians ; and when next they marched against 
the Turks, the Crusaders fought more fiercely than ever. 
"Thanks to the Lord's lance," writes one of their num- 
ber, "none of us was wounded, — no, not so much as by an 
arrow. I, who speak these things, saw them for myself, 
since I was bearing the Lord's lance." 

284. The Crusaders Before Jerusalem. After Antioch had 
fallen, the Crusaders were free to march on Jerusalem. 
There men and animals suffered much from lack of food 
and water. "Many lay near the dried-up springs," says an 
old writer, "unable to utter a cry because of the dryness of 
their tongues, and stretching out their hands to those whom 
they saw had water." Again the priests saw visions, and 
it was proclaimed that if the army marched barefoot 
around the city for nine days, the city would fall. 

So a procession was formed, and the Crusaders marched 
around the city, with priests and bishops at their head, 
chanting hymns and prayers as they went. The Moham- 
medans mocked at them 
from the walls, and some 
beat a cross, crying out : 

"Look, Franks! It is the 
holy cross on which your 
Christ was slain!" 
After this the chiefs or- 
A MACHINE FOR HURLING STONES dered slu attack on the city 

from two sides. The Mo- 
hammedans were beaten back from the walls by the showers 
of stones from the hurling machines, and blazing arrows 
carried fire to the roofs of the buildings. Battering rams 




THE FIRST CRUSADE 239 

broke openings in the solid walls, and by means of scaling 
ladders the Christians swarmed upon the ramparts. 

285. The Fall of the City (1099). At last the city fell. 
Jerusalem — the holy city, which held the tomb of Christ — 
was once more in the hands of the Christians. But what a 
terrible day was that ! How little of the meek and just spirit 
of Christ did his followers show! 

"When our men had taken the city, with its walls and 
towers," writes one of the Crusaders, "there were things 
wondrous to be seen. For some of the enemy (and this is 
a small matter) were deprived of their heads; others, rid- 
dled through with arrows, were forced to leap down from 
the towers; and others, after long torture, were burned in 
the flames. In all the streets and squares there were to be 
seen piles of heads and hands and feet ; and along the pub- 
lic ways foot and horse alike made passage over the bodies 
of the slain." 

Thus the Crusaders fulfilled their vow to "wrest the Holy 
Sepulcher from the infidel." But at what a cost of lives, 
both Christian and Mohammedan ; of agonies of battle, and 
sufferings on the way ; of women made widows and children 
left fatherless! "Blessed are the merciful, for they shall 
obtain mercy," said Christ. This teaching, alas! the Cru- 
saders seemed not to know. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Imagine yourself a boy or girl at the Council of Clermont, and 

write an account of the calling of the Crusade. 

2. Did men like Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless do more 

good than harm to the Crusade? Why? 

3. What other motives besides zeal for religion influenced men to go 

on the Crusade? (Read Count Stephen's letter again.) 

4. Study the picture on page 238 and find out how a hurling machine 

worked. 

5. Make a list of the things for which we should praise the Crusaders, 

and then make a list of their defects. 



CHAPTER XXXII 
THE CRUSADE OF RICHARD THE LION-HEARTED 

Points to Be Noted 

How the Crusaders organized their conquests; how Palestine was pro- 
tected against tlie Mohammedans. 

Failure of the Second Crusade. 

Character of Saladin; his capture of Jerusalem; date; how he treated 
the Christians. 

Preparations for the Third Crusade; the three great rulers who took 
part; death of Frederick Barbarossa; failure of the German ex- 
pedition. 

Character of Richard the Li on-Hearted; route taken by Richard and 
Philip; how Acre was taken; why the Crusade failed; Richard's 
captivity, ransom, and death. 

Object of the Fourth Crusade; date; its results; why the Crusading 
movement came to an end. 

286. The Kingdom of Jerusalem. The Crusaders organized 
the cities they had conquered in the Holy Land by forming 
them into a feudal kingdom, called the kingdom of Jeru- 
salem. Most of the Crusaders then prepared to return to 
their homes. Only those who had secured feudal lordships 
in Palestine remained behind. If the Mohammedans had 
been united at that time, they might easily have driven the 
Christians into the sea. But the Mohammedans were quar- 
reling among themselves, and besides they had learned to 
fear the mail-clad "Franks." 

The Christians were thus given time to prepare their de- 
fenses. Huge castles were everywhere built to protect their 
lands. New companies of Crusaders, also, began to ar- 
rive, to take the place of those who had returned home; 
and soon merchants from the Italian cities settled there for 
the purpose of trade. 

287. The Three Military Orders. Three special "military 
orders" were formed to protect the Holy Land. These were 

240 



RICHARD THE LION-HEARTED 



241 



called the Knights Hospitallers, the Knights Templars, and 
the Teutonic Knights. The members of these orders were 
both monks and knights. They were bound, like the 
monks, by vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience; but 
they were also knights, engaged in a perpetual crusade 
against the infidel. The Hospitallers wore a white cross 
on a black mantle; the Templars a red cross on a white 
mantle; and the Teutonic 
Knights a black cross on a 
white mantle. These mili- 
tary orders became very 
powerful and wealthy, and 
helped a great deal to keep 
the Holy Land in the hands 
of the Christians. 

About forty years after 
the First Crusade, occurred 
a Second Crusade (1147- 
1149), which was caused by 
the news that the Turks 

had conquered part of the kingdom of Jerusalem. Two 
kings — Conrad III of Germany and Louis VII of France — 
took part in this Crusade, but they accomplished very little. 

288. Rise of Saladin. After another forty years, rumors 
began to reach Europe of a great Mohammedan leader who 
had arisen in Egypt, and was threatening Palestine with 
new danger. He was called Saladin, and was one of the 
greatest rulers the Mohammedans ever had. He was fore- 
most in battle, and was wise and far-sighted in council. 
When he was victorious he dealt generously with his 
enemies, and when he was defeated he was never cast down. 
He was simple in his habits, just and upright in his deal- 
ings, and true to his promises. He was, in short, as chiv- 
alrous a warrior, and as sincere a believer in his faith, as 




KNIGHT TEMPLAR 



242 OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 

any of the Christian knights against whom he fought ; and 
his power was soon so great that he could attack them from 
all sides. 

"So great is the multitude of the Saracens and Turks," 
wrote one of the Christians, "that from the city of Tyre, 
which they are besieging, they cover the face of the earth 
as far as Jerusalem, like an innumerable army of ants." 

289. He Captures Jerusalem (1187). When at last the 
Christians marched out to battle, they were overthrown 
with terrible slaughter. The king of Jerusalem and the 
Grand Master of the Templars were among the captives 
taken. Three months later, Saladin laid siege to Jerusalem 
itself. For two weeks the city held out, but at the end of 
that time it was forced to surrender. 

The mercy which Saladin now showed to the conquered 
Christians was in strange contrast to the cruelty which the 
Crusaders had displayed. There was no slaughter now such 
as had occurred ninety years before. The greater number 
of the defeated army were allowed to go free, on paying a 
ransom. The churches, however, were all changed into 
Mohammedan mosques. 

290. Preparations for the Third Crusade. When news of 
these events reached Europe, it caused great excitement. 
The king of England, who was called Richard the Lion- 
Hearted, took the cross and prepared to go on a new cru- 
sade. King Philip Augustus of France promised to join 
him; and the Emperor Frederick of Germany, called Bar- 
barossa on account of his red beard, also took the vow to 
go. These were the three most powerful rulers of Europe, 
and the movement which they set on foot promised to be 
one of the greatest that the world had ever seen. 

The Emperor Frederick, in spite of his seventy years, 
was the first to start. He led his army by the Danubn 
route, and except for one battle which he had to fight wit'i 



RICHARD THE LION-HEARTED 



243 



the Eastern Emperor, all went well until the army reached 

Asia Minor. There, alas! the old Emperor was drowned 

while swimming a 

river one hot day to 

refresh himself and 

shorten his way. After 

that the German army 

went to pieces, and 

most of its members 

lost their lives in the 

mountains and deserts 

of Asia Minor, or were 

cut down by Turkish 

soldiers. 

291. Richard the 
Lion-Hearted. Richard 
the Lion-Hearted is 
one of the most inter- 
esting, and also one of 
the most typical, of 
the Crusaders. The 
Crusade appealed alike 
to his love of adven- 
ture and to his devo- 
tion to religion. A 
chronicler tells us that 

he was tall, well built, and with hair "midway between red 
and yellow." He loved to hunt, to sing, to make verses, 
and to conquer other knights in "tournaments" or in real 
battles. His strength and his military skill were famed 
throughout Western Europe. But he was a warrior and 
a knight, rather than a wise king. He neglected and mis- 
governed his kingdom of England; and even as a warrior, 




RICHARD THE LION-HEARTED 
From the figure on his tomb 



244 



OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 




it must be confessed, he was guilty of some acts of cruelty 
which were not in keeping with the highest ideals of 

knighthood. 

292. Departure of Richard 

and Philip. Philip and Rich- 
ard profited by the experience 
of those who had gone on the 
Crusades before them, and 
when they were ready to 
start they did not attempt to 
go by the long land route 
down the Danube valley. In- 
stead they resolved to go by 
water, and took ship from 
Marseilles, in Southern 
France. From the beginning, 
however, things went wrong. 
Richard and Philip were very 
jealous of each other, and 
could not get along together. Philip was only half-hearted 
in the Crusade, and longed to be back in France ; and Rich- 
ard allowed himself to be turned aside for a time to other 
things. 

293. Siege and Fall of Acre. When they reached the Holy 
Land, they found the Christians laying siege to Acre, one 
of the seaports near Jerusalem, The siege had already 
lasted more than a year, and for several months longer it 
dragged on. It was a dreary time for the Christians. "The 
Lord is not in the camp," wrote one of their number; 
"there is none that doeth good. The leaders strive with 
one another, while the lesser folk starve, and have none to 
help. The Turks are persistent in attack, while our knights 
skulk within their tents. The strength of Saladin increases 
daily, but daily does our army wither away." 



SHIELD OF RICHARD 

During the Cnisades knights began the 
practice ot painting emblems on their 
shields, banners, etc., to distinguish one 
from another. The "lions" which Rich- 
ard used became the "arms" of England. 



RICHARD THE LION-HEARTED 



245 



The fame of Richard as a warrior soon put new spirit 
into the besiegers. Almost daily he rode around the walls 
of Acre, defying the Moham- 
medans and directing the 
work of the siege. He or- 
dered stone-hurling machines 
to be put in operation, and 
showed the besiegers where 
to place battering-rams, mov- 
able towers, and other "en- 
gines" to batter down the 
walls and secure an entrance 
into the city. In the end 
these measures were success- 
ful and Acre fell — chiefly ow- 
ing to the skill and daring of 
King Richard. 

294. Failure of the Crusade. 
Soon after the fall of Acre, 
King Philip returned to 
France, leaving Richard to carry on the war without his 
aid. But quarrels among the leaders continued, and they 
could not agree on anything. It is said that Richard one 
day rode up a hill within sight of Jerusalem, but held his 
shield before his face that he might not look upon the 
sacred city which he could not rescue. The army was 
obliged to retreat, and the Holy City was left in the hands 
of the "infidels." 

Richard was now obliged to return to England; so he 
made a truce with Saladin for three years, during which 
time Christians might freely visit Jerusalem. When he de- 
parted from Syria, he left behind him a great reputation for 
his bravery. It is said that the fear which he aroused among 
the Mohammedans was so great that when their children 




MOVABLE TOWER 



246 



OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 



wept they would say to them: "Be quiet, the king of Eng- 
land is coming." 

295. Richard's Captivity, Ransom, and Death. To avoid 
enemies on his way home, Richard attempted to pass 
secretly through Germany, almost alone. But he was 
recognized by a lord whose enmity he 
had gained while on the Crusade, and 
was taken prisoner. For a time the 
place of his confinement was not known 
to his own people. In after years, 
men told a story of how his favorite 
"minstrel," Blondel, wandered through 
Germany, singing beneath the walls of 
every castle a song known only to the 
king and to Blondel himself. At last 
he was rewarded by hearing the an- 
swering verse in Richard's clear voice, 
and he knew that he had found his 
master's prison. 

Richard's enemies drove a hard bar- 
gain with him. It was only after four- 
teen months of captivity, and on the 
payment of an enormous ransom, that 
he was released. He was never able 
to return to the Holy Land to renew 
the Crusade, as he had intended. He 
was detained at home by troubles in 
his own lands, and by war with King 
Philip. He died, in 1199, from an 
arrow wound which he had received 
while fighting in France. 

"What have I done to you, that you 
should slay me?" asked the dying king when the man who 
had shot the bolt was led captive before him. 




ARMOR OF THE 

TIME OF KING 

RICHARD 

Made of scales of iron 
overlapping one another 



RICHARD THE LION-HEARTED 247 

"You have slain my father and two of my brothers," was 
the reply. "Torture me as you will, I shall die gladly since 
I have slain you." 

On hearing this answer, Richard pardoned the man and 
ordered that he be set free. This chivalry and knightly 
generosity was characteristic of him. 

296. The Fourth Crusade (1202—04). The Crusades con- 
tinued for about a hundred years after the death of Richard 
the Lion-Hearted. The Fourth Crusade, which took place 
between the years 1202 and 1204, was the most important 
of these later expeditions. The citizens of Venice were the 
leaders in this, and to further their trading interests, it was 
directed against the Christian city of Constantinople, and 
not against the Turks. As a result of it the Eastern Em- 
pire was for fifty years in the hands of the Latin Chris- 
tians, and the Venetians secured many islands in the 
eastern Mediterranean Sea, and important trading privi- 
leges. Largely as a result of these gains, Venice became 
the chief center of the trade which now began to bring into 
Europe the spices and other products of far-distant Asia. 

297. End of the Crusading Movement. There were several 
later Crusades, but these accomplished very little. Grad- 
ually the Crusading movement died out, though pilgrims 
long continued to go peacefully to the Holy Land. Freer 
access to the holy places was now allowed them, and it no 
longer seemed so important that the Sepulcher of Christ 
should be rescued from the hands of the infidel. Perhaps 
men came to see, also, that it does not make so much differ- 
ence who rules the land where Christ lived and died, but 
that the great question is whether Christ lives and rules in 
the hearts of those who profess to follow him. 



248 OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 

Topics for Beview and Search 

1. Why was the feudal plan of g:ovemment a good one for the lands 

won by the Crusaders in Palestine? 

2. In what ways were the "militaiy orders" better defenders of Pales- 

tine than ordinarj'^ Crusaders'? 

3. Read Sir Walter Scott's account of an imaginary interview between 

King Richard and Saladin {The Talisman, chapter xxvii). 

4. Was the Fourth Crusade a true Crusade? Give reasons for your 

answer. 

5. Find out all yoi; can about the capture of Jerusalem by the British 

in 1917. 



CHAPTER XXXIII 
RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES 

Points to Be Noted 

Introduetion of new products, manufactures, and inventions from the 

East; love of travel and effects of travel on the minds of men; 

increase in trade; growth of cities. 
Location of Venice; how the city grew rich; Venetian territories; trade 

routes to the East. 
Description of a Venetian ship ; its cargo ; homeward voyage ; the beauty 

of Venice; church of St. Mark; trade routes to the north and west. 
Rivalry of Venice and Genoa; victory of Venice; growth of Atlantic 

seaports later. 

298. New Products from the East. Although the Crusades 
failed to drive the Mohammedans out of the Holy Land, 
they nevertheless had some very important results. During 
this period a great number of new natural products and 
manufactures were introduced into Europe from Moham- 
medan lands. These included sugar and sugar-cane; buck- 
wheat, rice, garlic, and hemp; the orange, watermelon, 
lemon, and apricot; muslins, damask, satin, and velvet; 
and dye-stuffs of various sorts. From the East came the 
use of Arabic numerals, in place of the old clumsy Roman 
numerals which had so long been employed. Windmills, 
which are now so common in certain parts of Europe and 
America, were first introduced from Mohammedan coun- 
tries. Beautiful decorations for houses, including the hand- 
some rugs and carpets which are still so much sought after, 
also came to us as a result of intercourse with the Arabian 
• and Persian East. Finally, it was from the East that me- 
dieval Europe got its fondness for the use of spices in its 
food and drink, which after many years led Columbus to 
set out on his search for an easier waj'- to the East Indies 
by sailing westward across the Atlantic Ocean. 

249 



250 OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 

299. Increase of Travel and Commerce. Two results of the 
Crusades should here be separately mentioned. The first of 
these was the increase in traveling which they produced, 
and which was especially important in broadening the minds 
of the men of Western Europe. Before the Crusades, each 
district lived to itself, and its inhabitants rarely heard what 
was going on in the rest of the world. During the Crusades 
this isolation was broken down. For nearly two hundred 
years men went and came on these great expeditions, seeing 
strange countries and strange peoples, and learning new cus- 
toms. After the Crusades had come to an end, men still 
continued to travel more freely than they had done in the 
earlier period. In this way they came to learn much more 
of the w^orld than had been known for some centuries, 
and their curiosity for yet further knowledge was aroused. 

More immediately important than this love of travel was 
the second result spoken of above — namely, the great in- 
crease in trade which the Crusades produced. It was the 
Crusades chiefly which caused the revival of commerce which 
we have discussed in the chapter on Life in the Medieval 
Towns, and which we saw was so important in building up 
rich and powerful cities, and enabling them to gain their 
rights of self-government. The cities which profited most 
in this way were naturally the cities in Italy; and of these 
Italian cities it was Venice and Genoa which made the great- 
est gain. 

300. Growth of Venice. Venice is sometimes called the 
Queen of the Adriatic. It is located on a number of small 
islands in the Adriatic Sea, near the mouth of the River Po. 
It first became a town in the troublous days of the Teutonic 
invasions, when people fled to the shelter of its shores to 
escape the dangers which threatened them on the mainland. 
At first its inhabitants were fishermen and makers of salt; 
then gradually a little trade sprang up. Venetian vessels 



RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES 



251 



began to carry pilgrims to the Holy Land, and along with 
returning pilgrims they brought back some of the manufac- 
tures and products of the East. When the Crusades came, 
the Venetians made a great profit in carrying these armed 
pilgrims to and from Palestine. In some of the towns which 
were captured by the Crusaders, the different Italian cities 
were given certain sections in which their merchants could 
establish themselves and carry on their trade under the 
rule of men from their own city. One whole section of 




VENETIAN MERCHANT SHIP 
From an old engraving 

Constantinople was thus given to the Venetians, when that 
city was taken by the Crusaders; and in addition they were 
given Crete, and Rhodes, and many other islands in the 
Eastern Mediterranean. Thus Venice came to have an ex- 
tensive colonial empire, and a rich trade with Eastern lands. 
301. Venetian Trade with the Far East. The goods which 
the Venetians sought came chiefly from the Far East — that 
is, from India and China. Spices and silks and other goods 
of those countries either came by native caravans of camels 
and horses across the vast deserts and plains of Central 



252 OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 

Asia; or else they were brought in small Mohammedan 
vessels through the Indian Ocean, and up the Persian Gulf 
or the Red Sea. In either event, the goods would probably 
be a year or two on the way, before they reached the shores 
of the Mediterranean. 

Let us picture to ourselves a Venetian vessel waiting for 
its cargo of Eastern goods. It has brought woolen goods and 
grain from Europe to sell in the East, and is lying in the 
harbor of some seaport in Palestine, now under Moham- 
medan rule once more. The vessel is small, and but partly 
decked over; perhaps it is propelled by oars as well as by 
sails. It is likely that we may see in the bows and amid- 
ships a few small cannon, which began to be used in Europe 
with the introduction of gunpowder in the fourteenth cen- 
tury. These are puny weapons compared with the giant 
guns of later days, for they can send their stone balls not 
much farther than a good bowman can shoot. Nevertheless 
their noise and smoke make them formidable, and we shall 
be glad of their presence in case we meet a pirate vessel. 

Here, at last, come the goods for our cargo — great bales 
and bundles of them. A spicy and sweet-scented odor is 
over everything; for the bales contain sugar, cloves, cinna- 
mon, nutmegs, ginger, pepper, and the like.* Some smaller 
parcels are especially fragrant, for they contain musk and 
other perfumes. Here are packages containing camphor, and 
there are caskets full of jewels and precious stones. Yon- 
der bales contain carpets, rugs, and rich silks. Altogether 
it is a goodly cargo, and we may be sure its owners will reap 
a great profit when once its precious wares are safely brought 
to market. 

When our cargo is all on board, the passengers, who are 
mostly returning pilgrims, go on board, and with oars and 



*Tea, coffee, and chocolate were not introduced into Europe until two 
centuries after the time of Columbus. 



RESULTS OP THE CRUSADES 253 

sails the vessel begins its homeward journey. It does not 
go alone, but in company with a number of others, for the 
sake of better protection against the Mohammedan pirates. 
From Palestine to Venice is more than 1500 miles, or about 
half the distance from America to Europe. With the slow 
vessels of that time we may be sure that the voyage will take 
us from three weeks to a month of wearisome traveling. 

302. Beauty and Wealth of Venice. At last, however, the 
voyage is ended, and we disembark on the shores of the 




THE GRAND CANAL OF VENICE 



Grand Canal, shaped like a letter "S," which divides the 
islands of Venice into two groups. What a marvelous city 
it is ! It lies about three miles from the Italian shore, and 
the low-lying isles on which it rests are almost solidly 
covered with buildings. Far more numerous than its streets 
are the narrow winding canals which separate its islands 
one from another. Here ply the long narrow boats, called 
gondolas, which in Venice are still the principal means of 
getting about. Everywhere we see evidences of the wealth 
and power of the city, due to its secure position and its 



254 



OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 



rich commerce. Already those churches and palaces which 
are today the delight of the traveler, have begun to appear. 
The chief of these is the great church of Saint Mark. Its 
domes and pinnacles, as well as the gold and rich colors of 
its mosaic pictures, made out of bits of glass and marble, 




PLAZA OF SAINT MARK, VENICE 

show the influence of artists from Constantinople. The 
four statues of horses made of gilded bronze, which stand 
over the principal entrance to the building were brought 
from Constantinople at the time of the Fourth Crusade. 
As we gaze in wonder and awe upon this vast building, and 
as we look about over this rich and populous city, we can 
understand something of the admiration which the Cru- 
saders felt when they first beheld Constantinople. For now 



RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES 255 

it is Venice, and not Constantinople, which enjoys the dis- 
tinction of being the greatest and most beautiful city in the 
world; and it was the Crusades, and the commerce which 
they brought with them, which have produced the change. 

303. Trade Routes to the North and West. But we are for- 
getting our vessel's cargo. What becomes of those precious 
goods which have come with us from Palestine? Some of 
them, doubtless, will remain in Italy ; but most will be sent 
on horse and mule back over the passes of the Alps, to find 
a market at good prices in the cities of France and Germany. 
Some part, also, will be reshipped in other Venetian ves- 
sels, and will make the long and dangerous voyage, through 
the Mediterranean and the Atlantic Ocean, to Flanders, 
England, and other countries of the West. 

304. Rivalry of Venice and Genoa. When such great profits 
were to be made in this trade, we may be sure that Venice 
was not free from the rivalry of other cities. Her chief 
competitor was Genoa, famous to us as the birthplace of 
Christopher Columbus. Although this city lay far around 
on the western side of Italy — indeed, almost directly across 
the peninsula from Venice — it was long able to dispute with 
Venice for the chief place in this trade with the East. For a 
time Genoa was able even to dispossess Venice of its trading 
privileges in Constantinople, and itself secure the chief part 
of the trade in the Black Sea and with the East. Long and 
disastrous wars followed, in which victory rested now with 
the Venetians, and now with the Genoese. Finally, about 
one hundred years before Columbus discovered America, the 
Venetians won a great victory over the Genoese fleet; and 
thenceforth their city controlled without question the Medi- 
terranean Sea and the trade with the East. 

305. Growth of Ports on the Atlantic. It was only later, 
after the ocean route to India had been discovered by the 
Portuguese, that this trading monopoly of the Venetians 



256 OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 

was disturbed. Then newer and yet greater centers of com- 
merce sprang up on the shores of the Atlantic — at Antwerp 
in Flanders, at Amsterdam in Holland, and, above all, in 
the great English capital of London. 

Topics for Beview and Search 

1. What articles of food that we use daily were unknown to the people 

of Europe in the Middle Ages? 

2. In what other M^ays besides traveling can people of the present time 

learn about the world? 

3. Compare a Venetian vessel with a modem steamship. 

4. Trace on the map Venice's trade routes on land and sea. 



CHAPTER XXXIV 
THE BEGINNINGS OF DISCOVERY 

Points to Be Noted 

How the geography of Asia came to be better known; travels of the 
Polo brothers; their reception at the court of Kublai Khan; the 
Khan's request to the Pope. 

The second visit to China; Marco Polo's life in the Khan's" service; why 
the Polos were allowed to de])iirt; their homeward journey; tlie 
effect of Marco Polo's book of travels. 

Why the Norse discovery of America had no results. 

Why Europe was more interested in explorations in the fifteenth cen- 
tury; Gutenberg's invention of printing, and its results. 

Portugal's part in the work of discoveiy ; Avhat Prince Henry the Navi- 
gator was seeking; the two theories of the world; progress of 
Poi'tuguese explorations; work of Diaz; how Vasco da Gama 
reached India; date; the importance of his discovery. 

306. Asia Becomes Better Known. One important result 
of the trade of Venice in the products of the Far East was 
that it led to a better knowledge of the geography of Asia. 
In part this came through the reports given of the different 
Asiatic countries by the caravan leaders who brought these 
goods to the shores of the Mediterranean. Still more did 
it come from the travels into the Far East of members of a 
noble Venetian family named Polo. 

307. The Polo Brothers in China. About seventy years 
after the Crusade of Richard the Lion-Hearted, two brothers 
of the Polo family were established at Constantinople, car- 
rying on trade. In the pursuit of their business they traveled 
up into the Black Sea. Thence, led on partly by curiosity 
and partly by hope of gain, they traveled on and on, until 
at last they had crossed the whole of Central Asia, and ar- 
rived at the court of the Chinese Emperor, or Khan. The 
ruler of China at this time was an open-minded prince 

257 



A 



258 



OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 




KUBLAI KHAN 

From a Chinese engraving 



named Kublai Khan, and he made the brothers welcome 
in his land. It was the first time that he had ever 

seen Europeans, and he 
was delighted with the 
intelligence and polite- 
ness of his visitors. He 
listened eagerly to all 
that they had to tell of 
their part of the world; 
and at last he sent them 
back with a message to 
the Pope asking that one 
^ hundred missionary 
teachers be sent to in- 
struct his people in 
Christianity and the arts 
of Europe. 

It was nine years from the time that the Polo brothers 
left Europe to the time when they returned to Venice. 
They found that there was at that time trouble in the 
Church, so only two missionaries were appointed to accom- 
pany them back to the Khan's court. Even these two were 
so filled with dread that at the last moment they refused 
to go. The brothers Polo, however, resolved to return and 
explain the situation to the Khan; and with them one 
brother took his seventeen-year-old son, Marco Polo. 

308. Their Second Trip to China. It was in the year 1271 
that the little party set out on the second trip to China. 
Almost four years passed before they were again safely at 
the court of Kublai Khan. There they were kindly re- 
ceived, and Marco was taken into the employment of the 
Khan. He soon learned to speak and to read several of 
the Asiatic languages, and was sent by the Khan on mis- 
sions all over China, and even to Tibet and Burma. 



BEGINNINGS OF DISCOVERY 259 

Wherever he went he took pains to observe the country 
and the ways of the people. His father and uncle, mean- 
while, were busily engaged in gaining wealth in various 
ways. 

For many years the three Venetians remained thus em- 
ployed in China. Often they wished to return to their own 
country, but Kublai Khan was so fond of them that he 
would not consent to their departure. At last a time came 
when it was necessary to send a princess of the Chinese 
court to be married to one of the Turkish rulers of Western 
Asia. The land journey was so long and dangerous that the 
Khan wished her to make the journey by sea. Because of 
the knowledge which these Venetians had of seafaring, he 
reluctantly appointed them to accompany the princess on 
her voyage. 

The party set sail from the coasts of China in the year 
1292. After long delays on account of storms they arrived 
at their destination in the Persian Gulf in 1294. This was 
the first voyage ever undertaken by Europeans in what we 
now call the Pacific Ocean. 

309. Marco Polo Describes Their Travels. The Venetian 
travelers arrived at their home after an absence of more 
than twenty years. They had difiiculty in getting their 
friends and relatives to recognize them, for they had long 
before been given up as lost. They brought back with them 
a rich store of diamonds, rubies, sapphires, and pearls, which 
they had sewed in the seams of their old shabby coats ; and 
these excited almost as much wonder as the story of their 
adventures. Three years later Marco Polo was taken cap- 
tive in a battle with the Genoese, and while he was held in 
prison he wrote out the story of their travels. His book 
for the first time told Europe of the vastness and wealth of 
China, of the richness of Java, Sumatra, and the Spice 
Islands, and of the great island kingdom of Japan. It was 



260 OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 

the first great advance in the knowledge of geography since 
the days of the ancient Greeks and Romans. 

310. Norse Discovery of America Forgotten. We have 
already seen how, nearly three hundred years before this, 
the Northmen had discovered the coast of North America 
in their adventurous voyages into the Atlantic Ocean. 
Nothing permanent, however, had come from that dis- 
covery. Firearms and gunpowder were not then in use, 
and the Norsemen had great difiSculty in beating off the hos- 
tile Indians. The compass and other aids to navigation 
were as yet unknown, so voyages into the open sea were 
much more difficult and dangerous than they later be- 
came. Besides all this, Europe was then too much disturbed 
and too much occupied at home to care for these distant 
enterprises of the barbarian Northmen. No permanent set- 
tlements were made by the Northmen in America, and it 
was only occasionally that a vessel would go thither from 
Greenland for a cargo of timber. After several hundred 
years, the settlements in Greenland itself declined; and 
then, for a long period, all knowledge of the Northmen's 
discovery of America was lost. 

311. Changes in the Fifteenth Century. In the fifteenth 
century the situation was changed. Gunpowder, together 
with the compass and other aids to navigation, had now 
been introduced into Europe from China and India, where 
they were first invented. There was more travel, also, and 
more curiosity about foreign lands. There was a widespread 
demand for the spices and other goods of the East, and one 
city — Venice — had almost a monopoly of that profitable 
trade. Moreover, all the lands about the Eastern Medi- 
terranean were now in the hands of a race of Turks (the 
Ottomans) who were even ruder and fiercer than those in 
the days of the Crusades; and they began to interfere 
seriously with the caravan trade. What wonder, then, that 



BEGINNINGS OF DISCOVERY 



261 




EARLY PRINTERS 



some persons should begin to dream of reaching the rich 
lands of the Far East by new and untried routes? 

312. Invention of Printing:. New ideas of all sorts, more- 
over, were now more easily spread about as a result of the 
invention of printing. Ever 
since men began to write, 
books had been made by 
the slow process of forming 
each letter separately with 
the pen. At length men 
discovered that letters and 
other characters could be 
cut upon a block of wood, 
and then many copies could 
be printed from this one 
block. In this way "block books," as they were called, 
began to be made early in the fifteenth century. The trou- 
ble with these was that every page had to be engraved 
separately, and this proved such a task that only books of a 
very few pages were made in this way. 

Then it occurred to John Gutenberg, of Strassburg, Ger- 
many, that if he made separate types for the letters, he 
could use the same ones over and over again to form new 
pages; and if, instead of cutting the letters themselves, he 
made molds to produce them, he could cast his type in metal 
(which would be better than wood anyway), and from the 
one mold he could make as many of each letter as were 
necessary. 

In this way, printing from movable metal types was m- 
vented by Gutenberg, about the year 1450. It seems like a 
very small thing, when we tell about it, but it was one of 
the most important inventions that the world has ever seen. 
Soon presses and printing offices were established all over 
Western Europe, printing Bibles and other books, and sell- 



262 OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 

ing them so cheaply that ahnost every one could afford to 
buy. By this means knowledge of new ideas about geog- 
raphy, and of travels such as those of Marco Polo, were 
spread among all educated men ; and this greatly helped to 
further the work of discovery. 

313. Explorations of the Portugfuese. The little kingdom 
of Portugal took the lead in the search for a new route to 
India. This was largely due to the efforts of a wise and 
capable prince whom we call "Prince Henry the Navigator." 
He was not himself a sailor, but his whole life was spent in 
sending out expeditions which gradually explored the west- 
ern coast of Africa. He sought gold-dust and ivory from 
the Sahara desert; and he started, alas! the trade in African 
slaves captured on those shores. He also sought to spread 
the gospel of Christianity among the heathen, and perhaps 
he came at last to dream of the possibility of reaching India 
by sailing around the southern point of Africa. 

There were two theories of the world in those days. One 
held that the lands were great islands in a world of water; 
the other held that the oceans were great lakes in a world of 
land. If this last view was correct, of course there could be 
no sailing around Africa and so reaching the Indian Ocean. 
But there were some vague stories of men in the days of 
ancient Egypt who had sailed around Africa; so the other 
and true view had its followers. 

Gradually the Portuguese explorers crept down the west- 
ern coast of Africa. Only after three attempts was Cape 
Bojador passed. When Prince Henry died, thirty years later, 
the explorations had nearly reached the point where the 
coast turns sharply to the eastward. Much disappointment 
was felt when, after tracing this coast for 1500 miles east- 
ward, it was discovered that it again turned to the south. 

314. Diaz Reaches the Cape of Good Hope (1486). Now the 
work of exploration went on vigorously. In 1484 the mouth 



BEGINNINGS OF DISCOVERY 263 

of the Congo River was passed. Two years later the Portu- 
guese king sent out Bartholomew Diaz with three small 
vessels, under orders to follow the continent to its southern 
end. After passing the farthest known point, about 20 de- 
grees south of the equator, Diaz was driven southward by- 
heavy winds for thirteen days, without seeing land. When 
the storm ceased and he sought once more the coast, he 
found that his mission was accomplished. He had passed 
the southernmost point of Africa and could prove that from 
there on the coast turned northward. He had discovered 
1200 miles of unknown coast. To the terminal point of 
the continent he gave the name of "Cape of Storms" ; but 
upon his return the wise king said : 

*'Nay, let it rather be called the Cape of Good Hope, for 
there is much reason to believe that we have now found 
the ocean route to the Indies." 

315. Vasco da Gama Reaches India (1498). So it proved; 
for, twelve years later, a Portuguese captain, by sailing 
around this cape, at last succeeded in reaching the long- 
sought shores of India. This captain was Vasco da Gama, 
whom the king sent out, in 1497, with four vessels to com- 
plete the remaining stages of the discovery. His voyage to 
India was a great feat of seamanship. The distance which 
he traveled was three or four times that to America, and the 
winds and currents were more baffling than those with which 
Columbus had to contend. 

After reaching Cape Verde, on the western shore of Africa, 
Da Gama struck boldly out for the Cape of Good Hope, and 
for nearly three months he was out of sight of land. On the 
east coast of Africa he found traders from India, who fur- 
nished him with a pilot across the Indian Ocean. He 
reached the great trading port of Calicut, on the western 
coast of India, just ten months and twelve days after he had 
left Lisbon. 



264 OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 

316. Results of His Discovery. So, at last, the Portuguese 
arrived at the goal of their efforts, after sixty years of striv- 
ing. From this time on, the trade of Venice declined, while 
Portugal speedily grew rich from its control of the new route 
to India. It was a great event in the history of the world. 
Up to this time Europe had stood wuth its back to the 
Atlantic, looking toward the East. The Mediterranean Sea 
hitherto had been the center of the commerce and of the 
culture of the world. Now Europe began to face westward, 
and the nations which bordered on the Atlantic Ocean be- 
gan to play the chief part both in commerce and in culture. 

The glory of Vasco da Gama's achievement, however, was 
somewhat dimmed by the fact that Christopher Columbus, 
six years before, had performed an even greater feat. While 
seeking to reach India by sailing westward, he had dis- 
covered the New World, which we call America. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Trace on the map (p. 272) the return voyage of the Polo family. 

How long would such a voyage take at the present time? 

2. Locate Tibet, Burma, Java, Sumatra, the Spice Islands, Japan. 

3. Find out more about John Gutenberg. 

4. Trace on the map the explorations of the Portuguese sailors. 

5. "Why was an ocean route to India better than a land route? 

6. Make a list of the things which led to explorations and discoveries in 

the fifteenth century. 



CHAPTER XXXV 
THE VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS 

Points to Be Noted 
Time and place of Columbus' birth; his education. 
How he came to think of sailing westward ; his life in Lisbon ; ancient 

Greek ideas about the earth; the letter and chart from Toscanelli; 

for what Columbus deserves fame. 
Columbus' mistaken ideas; his efforts to get aid; why he had so much 

difficulty; how Queen Isabella became interested; the agreement 

with Columbus. 
Equipment of Columbus; inventions he used; his course to the West; 

fears and plots of his sailors. 
Signs of land; landing of Columbus; what he had discovered; how he 

was received in Spain. 
Lands discovered on his last three voyages; what he believed about his 

discoveries ; his death ; what he had accomplished. 

317. Early Life of Columbus. Christopher Columbus, the 
discoverer of America, was born in or near the Italian city 
of Genoa, about the year 1440. His father was a weaver 
of woolen cloth. The boy Christopher learned Latin, 
mathematics, and astronomy, and became a skilled maker 
of maps and charts such as were used by sailors. In 
one of the brief accounts which he wrote of his life, he tells 
us that he became a sailor at an early age, and that he fol- 
lowed the sea for forty years. Much as we should like to 
know more, this is about all that we can find out concerning 
the early life and boyhood of this great man. 

When Columbus was an experienced sailor he went to live 
at Lisbon, the capital of Portugal. Because of the explora- 
tions which the Portuguese were making, this was then the 
chief center of geographical knowledge. It was probably 
while he was living there that Columbus first began to think 
of the possibility of reaching the coast of Asia by sailing 
westward across the Atlantic. 

265 



266 



OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 



318. The Earth a Globe. Ever since the days of the ancient 
Greeks, learned men had believed that the earth is a globe. 
The Greek writer Ptolemy had taught this in a book which 
he wrote about geography. Indeed, long before that, the 
philosopher Aristotle, who was the teacher of Alexander the 




TOSCANELLFS MAP 

Great, had written: *'It does not seem absurd to me to 
think that the regions about the Pillars of Hercules (that 
is, the Strait of Gibraltar) are connected by the sea with 
India." 

In Columbus' own day a learned Italian named Tosca- 
nelli had sent to the king of Portugal a chart which he 
had made of the Atlantic Ocean. On this he showed Europe 
and Africa at the eastern margin of that ocean, and China 
and Japan at its western edge. In a letter which he later 
sent to Columbus himself, he wrote: 

"Do not wonder that I call west the lands where the spices 
are; for if a person should sail continuously westward, he 
would come to those parts of the earth where those lands 
lie." 

319. Credit Due Columbus. Columbus' idea, therefore, 
that the earth is round, and that India could be reached by 
sailing westward, was not original with him, nor was it a 



VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS 267 

new idea. Many learned men had believed this, but no one 
had yet had the courage and the perseverance to put the idea 
to the proof. Columbus' greatness lies in the fact that he 
first resolved to put this idea to the test; and that, in spite 
of discouragement and obstacles, he persevered until he had 
proved that land could be reached by sailing boldly across 
the seas to the west. 

320. Mistaken Ideas About the Earth's Size. If Columbus 
had known that, instead of being only three thousand miles 
away, Asia was more than twelve thousand miles distant, 
and that the great continents of North and South America 
barred the direct route to it, he might never have attempted 
his westward voyage. But men in that day thought that 
the earth was considerably smaller than we now know it to 
be. They also thought that Asia extended much farther to 
the eastward than it does. So Columbus believed that the 
westward route would be much shorter and easier than the 
one around the southern point of Africa, which the Portu- 
guese were attempting ; and he spent many weary years in 
trying to interest some government in his plan, so that he 
might get the ships and the money which he needed to put 
it into execution. 

321. Difficulty in Obtaining Aid. First, Columbus tried to 
get aid for his voj'-age from the king of Portugal. But 
Portugal was then too much interested in the rapid progress 
which was being made in its own plan for reaching India. 
The advisers of the Portuguese king reported that the plan 
of Columbus was "visionary," especially as his demands for 
reward in case he should succeed were very high. Never- 
theless, the king was enough impressed with the plan to 
take the dishonorable step of secretly sending out some of 
his own captains to see whether anything could be accom- 
plished by sailing directly to the westward. These cap- 
tains, however, had no faith in the enterprise, and after sail- 



268 OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 

ing a little way they returned and reported that it could not 
be done. After that the Portuguese king refused to have 
anything further to do with the matter. 

Then Columbus turned to the court of Spain. Spain at 
this time was under the joint rule of King Ferdinand of 
Aragon and Queen Isabella of Castile. In the early Middle 
Ages Aragon and Castile were small Christian kingdoms in 
Northern Spain. They waged constant warfare with the 
Mohammedan Moors from Africa, who had conquered most 
of the Spanish peninsula before the time of Charlemagne. 
Gradually the Moors were driven back until, in the time of 
Ferdinand and Isabella, they held only the small southern 
kingdom of Granada. The Spanish king and queen were 
now engaged in capturing this last stronghold and expelling 
the Moors from the country entirely. For this and other 
reasons, most of the Spanish councillors opposed giving aid 
to Columbus. 

After four years of waiting, Columbus sent his brother to 
England, to see whether the English king would not help 
him. Here also he was disappointed. Then, after another 
period of delay, he prepared to go himself into France, and 
lay his plan before the king of that country. 

Columbus was now an old and wearied man, and we can 
imagine the discouragement with which he set out on foot 
to cross the mountains into France. He had not gone far 
when he stopped at a monastery to ask for some bread and 
a cup of water for his little boy Diego, whom he was taking 
with him. The head of the monastery became interested in 
him and in his project. After some talk, Columbus agreed 
to remain there for a few days, while the good monk wrote 
to the queen, urging her not to let slip this favorable oppor- 
tunity of beating the Portuguese in the race to the Indies. 

322. Queen Isabella Agrees to Help Him. Ferdinand and 
Isabella were now in the midst of their last campaign against 



VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS 



269 



the Moors. The queen especially was ready to listen to 
Columbus' plans, and after Granada had fallen, she agreed 
to assist him in fitting out an expedition. Columbus was 
appointed hereditary admiral of all the lands which he 
might discover in the Atlantic Ocean, and he was to have 
one-tenth of all the gold, precious stones, spices, and other 




DEPARTURE OF COLUMBUS 
From an old engraving 

merchandise which might be obtained there. The queen 
bore seven-eighths of the cost of the expedition, and Colum- 
bus was to furnish the money for the other eighth. 

323. Columbus Sets Sail. On August 3, 1492, Columbus 
at last set sail, with three small ships called "caravels." 
The largest of these was but ninety feet long, or only about 
one-eighth the length of the great ocean steamers which 
now cross the Atlantic. The crews of the three vessels num- 
bered less than one hundred persons in all. 



270 



OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 



324. Improvements in Navigation. Ocean navigation, how- 
ever, was not so uncertain as it had been in the days of 
the Northmen. Sailors by this time had the compass, which 
enabled them to steer steadily in whatever direction they 
wished, even when they could not see the sun or stars. But 
it was still difficult to determine the place of a vessel at 
sea. There was a rude instrument called the cross-staff, 

^ which was used to measure 

^\ the distance of some heav- 

enly body (such as the 
north star) above the hori- 
zon, and so find the lati- 
tude. But for the longi- 
tude sailors had still to 
trust to guess-work, for the 
watches and chronometers 
with which ship captains 
now measure longitude 
were not yet invented. 

325. The Voyage to the West. Columbus directed his 
course first to the Canary Islands, where he spent almost a 
month refitting his vessels. When those shores were left 
behind them, and they were at last embarked on the un- 
known waters of the "Sea of Darkness," the sailors began 
to lose courage. They encountered no storms, but the 
gentle trade winds blew ever toward the west, and the men 
feared they might never be able to return home. One day, 
when the wind shifted so as to be favorable for the return 
voyage, they almost broke out into mutiny. 

"Let us return to our country," they cried. "We have 
fought enough with the sea. The winds are good ; let us re- 
turn at once." 

Columbus succeeded for a time in calming them, and the 
westward voyage was continued. Flights of strange birds 




THE CROSS-STAFF 



VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS 



271 



and other signs of land kept raising hopes which remained 
unfulfilled. The murmurings then began anew, and soon 
some bold spirits began to add threats to murmurs. If the 
admiral would not return while it was still possible to do 




THE SHIPS OF COLUMBUS 

SO, said they, some dark night a stealthy push might hurl 
him over the rail; and who would be able to say that this 
was not an accident? 

Fortunately, new and surer signs of land began to appear. 
Birds came flying about the ships in ever increasing num- 
bers, and among them were some which were known never 
to go far from shore. At last, on October 11, pieces of wood, 
which had evidently been cut or carved by the hand of man,' 
were observed floating on the waves. Bits of cane, a green 
rush or two, and a branch of thorn with berries attached 
came floating by. There could now be no doubt that land 
was close at hand. 

^^ At evening prayers that day, Columbus said to the men: 
'Let us thank God that we have been preserved during 



272 



OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 




VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS 273 

so long and perilous a voyage. During the night let each 
one watch vigilantly, for at the break of day we shall sight 
land. To the one who first perceives it I will give a silken 
jacket, together with a sum of money." 

326. Columbus Sights Land (October 12, 1492). Soon after 
nightfall Columbus thought that he saw in the distance a 
little light which moved about like a torch carried upon 
shore. At two o'clock in the morning came the boom of 
a cannon from one of the vessels, announcing that land 
was seen. It was now Friday, the 12th of October. We 
can imagine the impatience with which all awaited the 
dawning day. 

There at last land was before them — a low-lying island, 
surrounded by reefs, and studded with green trees. With 
a crimson robe over his armor, and the royal standard of 
Spain in his hand, Columbus landed and fell upon his 
knees, returning thanks to God. Men and women, with 
olive-colored skins and mild manners, gathered about the 
little company, and gazed upon these strange beings so un- 
like themselves, who with their ships seemed to have 
dropped from the skies. Columbus named the island San 
Salvador, in honor of the Holy Saviour, by whose favor his 
enterprise had been crowned with success. 

The land which Columbus had discovered was one of the 
Bahama islands, but he believed that it was one of the 
islands which lie off the coast of Asia. After discovering 
the islands of Cuba and Hayti (which he thought must be 
Japan) he set out on the voyage home, where he arrived on 
the 15th of March, 1493. Thus was completed the most 
memorable voyage that man has ever dared to attempt. 

327. His Triumphal Return. The joy with which Columbus 
was greeted on his return was wonderful to behold. All the 
bells rang, and the rulers of the city came to greet him at 
the water's edge. His journey to the court of Ferdinand and 



274 OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 

Isabella was a continual triumph. The people came from 
all directions to see the man who had found new lands to 
the west. 

When he entered Barcelona, where the king and queen 
were, he caused six Indians, whom he had brought, to go 
before him bearing baskets and open basins filled with gold 
and jewels and other precious things. Ferdinand and Isa- 
bella would not permit him to kneel to present his offerings, 
but caused him to be seated in their presence. This was 
the greatest honor which they could pay him. 

328. Later Voyages of Columbus. Columbus made three 
other voyages to the New World. On his second voyage, in 
1493, he discovered some other islands of the West Indies, 
and made some settlements there. On the third, in 1498, 
he discovered the island of Trinidad and the coast of South 
America, and was astonished to find the vast fresh water 
river of the Orinoco. From this expedition he was brought 
back home in disgrace and in chains, on charges of cruelty 
and misgovernment. His heart was broken at such ingrati- 
tude; but in 1502 he made a fourth voyage, which proved 
to be his last. This time he coasted along the shores of 
Honduras, in Central America. 

Columbus could not rid himself of the idea that he had 
reached Asia, and everywhere he looked for the rich king- 
doms described by Marco Polo, and for the Spice Islands 
from which the Portuguese were now drawing such great 
wealth. His last days were clouded with disappointment. 
He died in Spain in the year 1506. Thirty-six years later 
his bones were carried to one of the islands which he had 
discovered, and buried in the cathedral of San Domingo. In 
1898 his remains were once more moved ; and they now lie 
in the city of Seville, Spain. 

329. What He Accomplished. He had failed to find the 
ocean route to India, but he had accomplished something 



VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS 275 

very much greater. He had discovered a New World, in 
which men were to find refuge from the misgovernment and 
persecutions of the Old World, and where all that was best 
in European civilization was to be transplanted and grow 
to heights which as yet were undreamed of. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Locate the places discovered .bj'^ Columbus. 

2. What were Queen Isabella's reasons for helping Columbus'? 

3. Why was Columbus disappointed with his discoveries? 

4. Read Columbus' own letter describing his first voyage to the West. 

(Hart, Source Readers in American History, I, p. 2.) 



CHAPTER XXXVI 
THE SUCCESSORS TO COLUMBUS 

Points to Be Noted 

Meaning of the story about the egg; why men continued to sail west- 
ward. 

How John Cabot discovered North America; why there was so little 
interest in his discoveries; their importance. 

Increased knowledge of the New World; how America was named. 

Balboa's discovery of the Pacific Ocean; what men searched for after 
that. 

Magellan's voyage ; where he found a passage to the Pacific ; difficulties 
encountered ; his death ; how his followers returned to Europe ; what 
they had accomplished. 

330. Columbus and the Egg. There is a story that, at one 
time, some jealous persons were trying to belittle Colum- 
bus' achievements by saying that anyone could have 
sailed across the Atlantic and discovered the New World. 
By way of answer, Columbus picked up an egg and asked 
whether any of them could make it stand on end. All 
tried, one after another, and all failed. Then Columbus 
struck the egg lightly against the top of the table, crushing 
the shell slightly; and behold! it stood firmly on its end. 
He meant to show by this that it was easy enough for others 
to go to the New World after he had once shown them how. 

331. John Cabot Discovers North America (1497). The 
motive which sent men over the western seas was still the 
desire to reach the East Indies. In 1497 there was an 
Italian seaman, named John Cabot, living in the city of 
Bristol, England. He was a native of Columbus' own city 
of Genoa, but for a number of years he had been a citizen 
of Venice. There he had learned a great deal about the 

276 



SUCCESSORS TO COLUMBUS 277 

spice trade, and perhaps even then he thought of the poS- 
sibiHty of reaching India by saiHng westward. 

At all events, the news of the discoveries which Columbus 
was making in the West led him to ask the English king to 
send him on a voyage of discovery in those regions. The 
king did so, and in May, 1497, Cabot set sail, with one 
small ship and only eighteen men. In order not to trespass 
on the regions claimed by Portugal and Spain, he turned 
his vessel toward the northwest. After a short voyage he 
discovered land, which he explored for a distance of about 
nine hundred miles, and then returned to Bristol. His whole 
voyage had lasted only about three months. There is no 
doubt that he discovered the coast of North America, and 
that he was the first European to look upon the shores of our 
continent since the days of the old Northmen. Probably the 
land which he first discovered was Cape Breton Island, and 
that neighboring island which we still mark on our maps as 
"New-found-land." 

332. Results of His Discoveries. The next year Cabot was 
again sent out, this time with five vessels. On this voyage he 
seems to have followed the coast down to the latitude of 
South Carolina, if not somewhat farther. What became of 
him after this we do not know. He left no written account 
of his voyages, and the English do not seem to have been 
very much interested in them at the time. If he had 
actually succeeded in reaching Asia, of course it would have 
been different. But there was little to draw men at that 
time to the cold and savage coasts which Cabot first dis- 
covered, and farther south there was danger of conflict with 
the great power of Spain. 

Cabot's discoveries became later the ground on which 
England claimed possession of the coast of what is now the 
United States. Nothing, however, was done at this time to 
follow up his discoveries. The only immediate result was 



278 OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 

that they opened up a new fishing ground for Europe, to 
which French and Enghsh fishing vessels soon began to go 
every year in considerable numbers. 

333. Further Explorations. In the next few years a num- 
ber of captains — commanding Spanish, Portuguese, and 
French expeditions — explored the coasts of the New World. 
For more than three thousand miles, the coast of South 
America was traced, in addition to the explorations along 
the coast of North and Central America. Gradually the 
extent and outlines of the new lands began to take shape 
before the eyes of Europe. Before the time of Columbus' 
death, men were questioning whether, after all, these vast 
lands could be — as was at first thought — a part of the con- 
tinent of Asia. 

334. The Naming of America. Did you ever stop to wonder 
why the New World was named "America," instead of 
being called "Columbia," after its real discoverer? 

Americus Vespucius was an Italian seaman and chart- 
maker who accompanied several of the Spanish and Portu- 
guese expeditions to Central and South America. After his 
return he published some letters in Latin, describing the 
lands which he had visited. As he was rather vain and 
wanted the credit for himself, he did not give the names 
of the commanders under whom he had sailed. His letters 
were printed over and over again, and were read all over 
Europe before the first account in Latin of Columbus' 
voyages appeared. The result was that many people out- 
side of Spain and Portugal got the impression that Ves- 
pucius was the real discoverer of the lands which he de- 
scribed. 

One of these letters fell into the hands of a German pro- 
fessor of geography, who published it as a part of a work 
on geography which he had written. In this he said: 
"Europe, Asia, and Africa have now been more widely ex- 



SUCCESSORS TO COLUMBUS 



279 



plored, and another fourth part of the globe has been dis- 
covered by Americus Vespucius; so I do not see why any- 
one should rightly object to calling it 'America/ after its dis- 
coverer Americus." This name was adopted by the map 
makers, and before the truth of the matter was known it 
was so firmly fixed in use that it was impossible to change it. 
Another injustice was thus added to the many which 
Columbus suffered. 

335. Balboa Discovers the Pacific (1513). Up to this time 
no one had discovered the great ocean which washes the 
western shores of the continents of America. This next im- 
portant step in advancing our 
knowledge of the New World 
was taken by a Spaniard 
named Balboa. He was a man 
of great courage and resource- 
fulness, who had gone as a 
planter to Hayti. Here he got 
so deeply in debt that he re- 
solved to go on an expedition 
which was being fitted out for 
the mainland. To escape his 
creditors he was obliged to 
have himself nailed up in a 
barrel, and put on board with 
the provisions. Under his direction a settlement was made 
on the eastern shore of the isthmus of Panama. He made 
friends with the Indians, and from them learned that there 
was another great sea lying just across the mountains. 

He determined to see this, and in 1513 he set out with a 
picked body of Spaniards and some Indian guides. The 
way through the tropical forests and tangled swamps was 
incredibly hard. At last the little party reached the crest 
of the mountains, from which the Pacific Ocean could be 




...TflfeMcid^ 



BALBOA TAKING POSSES- 
SION OF THE PACIFIC 



280 OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 

seen glimmering in the distance. Four days later they 
reached the coast. There, when the tide came in over the 
sands, Balboa advanced into the water, and with drawn 
sword took possession of the "South Sea" for his master, the 
king of Spain. 

336. The Search for a Passage to the South Sea. A new 
impulse was now given to the movement to reach the Indies 
by sailing to the west. The way was much longer than 
Columbus had supposed, but if a passage through the bar- 
rier of America could be found, the project was not im- 
possible. For years men searched hopefully to find some 
hidden strait or river-passage which might lead them 
through to this newly discovered "South Sea." At one time 
the English thought that Chesapeake Bay and the Potomac 
River might offer such a passage; at another the French 
hoped to find it in the St. Lawrence River; at another the 
Dutch had similar hopes of the Hudson. But all these 
hopes were vain. As we now know, there is no natural 
passage, though the United States has made an artificial 
one by digging the Panama Canal. Other hopes centered on 
finding a way around the barrier of America. This was the 
reason for the long explorations in the Arctic regions, to 
find a "Northwest Passage" through the lands of ice and 
snow to the regions of spice beyond. 

337. Voyage of Magellan (1519). Long before these hopes 
were finally given up, the Spaniards had found a passage at 
the southern extremity of South America. A Portuguese 
captain named Magellan was its discoverer. Setting out 
from Spain, in 1519, with five small vessels, he sailed down 
the coast of South America until the storms and cold of the 
southern hemisphere drove him into winter quarters. A 
mutiny headed by three of his captains was put down by 
force. When spring came he continued his voyage, and 
at last discovered the strait which still bears his name. 



SUCCESSORS TO COLUMBUS 



281 



But Magellan's difficulties were far from being over. For 
thirty-eight days he battled with the dangers of this difficult 
strait. One of his vessels had already been wrecked, and 
during this time another stole away and returned to Spain. 
At last the passage through the strait was completed, and 
the vessels entered the South 
Sea, to which Magellan gave the 
name of the ''Peaceful" or 
"Pacific" Ocean. 

Magellan did not know that 
this sea was twice as wide as 
the Atlantic or the Indian 
Ocean. For weeks and weeks 
he sailed on and on. The 
provisions began to give out, and 
the drinking water turned thick 
and yellow. Ninety-three days 
passed before he found a group 
of inhabited islands, which he 
named the Ladrones. Here the 
ships took on food and fresh 
water, and again set sail. One week later Magellan dis- 
covered the Philippine Islands, which thenceforth (until 
taken by the United States in 1898) belonged to Spain. 
Here he himself was slain, in battle with the natives. 

338. The World Circumnavigated. The survivors, after 
burning one of their three vessels, continued the voyage. 
After many dangers, they at last reached the coveted Spice 
Islands, and took on a heavy cargo of cloves. But again one 
of their vessels became leaky, and had to be left behind. 
With the one vessel that was left, they dauntlessly con- 
tinued the journey, returning to Europe by the path of the 
Portuguese, around the Cape of Good Hope. Contrary 
winds, heavy seas, sickness, and starvation beset them on 




FERDINAND MAGELLAN 



282 OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 

the way. But in spite of all, the survivors of the expedition 
at last arrived safely in Spain. 

They had been gone three years, and only a handful of 
those who had set out came back home. They had the satis- 
faction of knowing, however, that they were the first of 
mankind who had ever sailed completely around the world, 
and that they had proved beyond question not only that the 
earth is round, but that it is possible to reach the East by 
sailing west. An American historian says: "The voyage 
thus ended was doubtless the greatest feat of navigation 
that has ever been performed, and nothing can be imagined 
that would surpass it except a journey to some other 
planet."* 

Topics for Iteview and Search 

1. Why was John Cabot's first voyage shorter than the first voyage 

of Columbus? 

2. What canal has shortened the eastern water route to India? 

3. What great geographical discoveries have been made in recent years? 

4. Rule a sheet of paper into three columns. Head these respectively — 

Explorers, Discoveries, Dates. Fill in the table, using this and 
the two preceding chapters for material. 



*Fiske, Discovery of America, II, p. 210. 



CHAPTER XXXVII 



SPANISH CONQUESTS IN AMERICA 

Points to Be Noted 

"^7hen and why Cortes went to Mexico ; circumstances in his favor ; what 
the natives thought of him; how he overcame opposition. 

Appearance of the City of Mexico; Aztec resistance; conquest of the 
city; results of the conquest of Mexico. 

Spanish conquests in South America; how Pizarro conquered Peru. 

Attempts within the territory of the United States; Ponce de Leon's 
discovery of Florida; why Coronado led an expedition northward; 
what he discovered; De Soto's wanderings; his discovery of the 
Mississippi River. 

What the Spaniards were seeking ; character of the Spaniards in Amer- 
ica; how slavery was introduced; work of Las Casas; the religious 
motive of the Spaniards; what the monks did for the Indians; re- 
sults of Spanish conquests. 

339. Cortes Leads an Expedition to Mexico (1519). In the 

same year that Magellan sailed from Spain on his great 
voyage, a Spanish expedition left Cuba for the mainland. 
This expedition 
was to prove as re- 
markable in the his- 
tory of conquests as 
Magellan's is in the 
history of sea-voy- 
aging. It was led 
by Hernando Cor- 
tes, and its object 
was the conquest of 
Mexico. 

Twenty-five years 
had gone by since Columbus had first discovered the New 
World. In all that time no trace had been found of the 
rich, civilized countries which Marco Polo had described, 

283 




AZTEC CALENDAR STONE 



284 



OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 



and for which men were looking. Then, in 1517, Yucatan 
was discovered, and in 1518 Mexico. Here for the first 
time the explorers found towns with paved streets, temples 

with rich carvings and 
sculptured idols, and peo- 
ples with gayly colored gar- 
ments and some knowledge 
of the arts of civilization. 
Gold and silver were plen- 
tiful, too, to a degree hith- 
erto unknown in the New 
World. The governor of 
Cuba resolved, therefore, 
to follow up these discov- 
eries at once. The result 
was the preparation of an 
expedition of eleven ships, 
six hundred men, and a 
dozen horses, with Cortes 
at its head. 

340. Circumstances Fa- 
voringf Cortes. Cortes land- 
ed in Mexico in March, 
1519. He was an extraor- 
dinary man, as courageous, 
persevering, and resource- 
ful as Magellan himself. In 
order that he might use his 
whole force, and also that 
he might prevent any pos- 
sibility of drawing back, he 
sank all his ships, so that his men must press forward to vic- 
tory or perish. Three circumstances especially favored his 
expedition. At the very start he had the good fortune, to 




FAIR GOD OF THE MEXICANS 
From an old Mexican sculpture 



SPANISH CONQUESTS IN AMERICA 285 

rescue a Spaniard who had been wrecked on those shores 
several years before, and who had gained a knowledge of 
some of the Mexican languages. In the second place, Cortes 
won the love of a beautiful Mexican princess, who was 
given him by one of the chieftains as a slave. She quickly 
learned Spanish, and her devotion to him, her knowledge 
of the native languages and of the country, proved of the 
greatest service to the success of the expedition. 

A third stroke of fortune was that a Mexican tradition told 
of a fair-skinned god who had once ruled over that land, and 
then had been driven out over the seas to the eastward by 
a cruel, bloody-minded deity, who demanded human sacri- 
fices. For many generations the Mexicans had believed 
that in due time this Fair God would return, with white- 
faced companions like himself, and that then human sacri- 
fices would cease and a wise and mild rule would be restored. 

341. Cortes' Reception by the Natives. When, therefore, it 
was reported that white-faced strangers with heavy beards 
had come, "in towers which moved hither and thither upon 
the sea," and that some of the strangers rode frightful beasts 
(horses) such as had never been seen before, and that they 
employed weapons (guns) which shot forth fire and made 
a loud noise, it was supposed that it was the Fair God him- 
self who had returned. The natives were glad to be re- 
leased from the yoke of the cruel rulers who dwelt in the city 
of Mexico, and who levied upon them heavy tribute of 
money and human victims. 

342. The March Inland. After laying the foundations of 
Vera Cruz, Cortes started inland. It was a wonderful march 
which now began! The idols in the temples were over- 
thrown, the victims who were held for sacrifice were set free, 
and the hostile chiefs were made prisoners. Not until the 
Spaniards had marched two-thirds of the distance to the 
capital was there any serious fighting. Then a fierce people. 



286 OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 

who were enemies of the rulers of Mexico, resolved to at- 
tack the newcomers and test whether they were really gods. 
The army which they drew up numbered 50,000 men. They 
were armed with bows and stone-tipped arrows, copper- 
headed lances, and heavy wooden swords which were edged 
with bits of glass-like stone; they wore tunics of quilted 
cotton and leather helmets, and carried leather shields. 
There were scarcely 500 of the Spaniards, but their su- 
perior weapons and armor, and, above all, their horses, gave 
them an easy victory. Hundreds of the natives were slain, 
while the Spaniards lost only a few men. 

These natives then became the firm allies of the Span- 
iards, and joined them in their march upon the Aztec tribes 
who ruled Mexico. About seventy miles from the capital, 
the Aztecs prepared to resist, and planned a treacherous at- 
tack. Cortes, however, was warned in time by the Mexican 
princess who accompanied him. He seized the leaders of 
the enemy, while his cannon plowed great lanes through 
the hostile forces and his horsemen charged the flying 
crowds. Terrible punishment was inflicted on the treach- 
erous chiefs, and Cortes then continued his march. 

343. The City of Mexico Taken. Soon the great city of 
Mexico itself came into view. This was strongly situated 
on an island in a little lake, like another Venice, and was 
connected with the neighboring shores by three great cause- 
ways of masonry. The Spaniards were amazed at its tem- 
ples and towers, its white-plastered houses, and floating 
gardens. "When we beheld,'' wrote one of their number, 
"so many cities and towns rising up from the water, and 
other populous places situated on the neighboring shores, 
and that causeway, straight as an arrow, which led into the 
capital, we remained astonished, and said to one another 
that it appeared like the enchanted castles which they tell 
of in the books of chivalry." 



SPANISH CONQUESTS IN AMERICA 287 

Montezuma, the priest-king of the Aztecs, attempted no 
resistance, and the Spaniards entered his city in November, 
1519. To guard against attack, Cortes promptly seized the 
king, and kept him as his prisoner and guest during the 
winter which followed. When a great expedition of eighteen 
ships and 1200 men was sent by the governor of Cuba to re- 
call Cortes, on the ground of disobedience, he skillfully per- 
suaded the newcomers to join his command. 

344. Cortes Overcomes Aztec Resistance. It was well that 
Cortes had these reenforcements, for in the next summer 
the long-delayed resistance began. Montezuma was de- 
posed and a new ruler was set up in his place. From the 
temples, the pyramids of sacrifice, and the housetops the 
Spaniards were fiercely attacked, and were soon obliged 
to withdraw from the city. In a terrible night retreat across 
the causeway, they lost more than two-thirds of their num- 
ber, and the next day they beheld with horror their cap- 
tured companions offered in sacrifice to the Aztec war god. 

Not once, however, did Cortes waver. His native allies 
were kept loyal by a great victory gained over some who 
deserted him. Then began the slow work of reconquering 
the hostile capital. Boats were built, and in April, 1521, 
siege was laid to the island city. The Aztecs fought des- 
perately, but in August their city fell, after its canals and 
footways had been heaped with the slain. 

345. Spain Governs Mexico. Next came the work of re- 
building the city, securing the submission of the whole 
country, and establishing a government over it, under the 
name of "New Spain." The conquest was slowly pushed 
westward, and the peninsula of Lower California was dis- 
covered. The old idol-worship, with its cruel human sacri- 
fices, was abolished, and patient and devoted monks began 
to convert the Indians to Christianity. In this way was 
established the first great colony of Spain on the continent 



288 OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 

of America; and the vast quantities of Mexican gold and 
silver which poured into the coffers of the king soon spurred 
Spain on to other attempts at conquest. 

346. Conquest of Peru (1531). We cannot go at length 
into the story of the conquest of Peru, in South America. 
The people who lived there were even richer in gold and 
silver than the Aztecs, and they had a similar civiliza- 
tion. In 1531 a Spaniard named Pizarro led a force of 
200 men and fifty horses from Panama into Peru. The con- 
quest was made easy by a civil war which was going on 
between two rival claimants for the throne. Again the 
Spaniards were taken for gods. Both claimants to the throne 
perished, and the Spaniards succeeded in seizing the coun- 
try. Civil war broke out between different leaders of the 
Spaniards, and for a long time there were petty conflicts 
with the natives. In the end Peru became the second great 
colony of Spain on the American continents; and new 
streams of gold and silver began to flow into the treasury of 
the powerful Spanish king. This was followed by the 
Spanish conquest of almost all of South America except 
Brazil, which was taken by the Portuguese. 

347. Explorations Within Territory of United States. The 
attempts of the Spaniards to make conquests north of the 
Gulf of Mexico did not result so favorably. Florida, which 
was at first supposed to be an island, was discovered by 
Ponce de Leon in 1513. On a second voyage there, eight 
years later, he received a wound from the Indians which 
put an end to his life. Seven years later another attempt 
was made at exploration, but the party could not find their 
ships again, and all perished except four. After eight years 
of wandering and many adventures these four (one of 
whom was a negro), managed to reach the Spanish settle- 
ments founded by Cortes on the Gulf of California. They 
told wonderful stories of vast herds of "hump-backed cattle" 



SPANISH CONQUESTS IN AMERICA 



289 



(buffaloes) which they had seen, and gave glowing reports 
of rich cities which they had visited. But these were really 




INDIAN PUEBLO 



only the Indian pueblos, or villages of sun-baked brick, 
which are still to be found in Arizona and New Mexico. 

An explorer named Coronado attempted to find these 
wonderful cities. He led an expedition from Mexico north- 
ward, until he arrived in the very heart of what is now 
the state of Kansas. Nowhere could he find any cities ex- 
cept the Indian pueblos; but he did discover the Grand 
Canyon of the Colorado River, and the vast grass-covered 
plains which lie west of the Mississippi River. 

348. De Soto Discovers the Mississippi River. Meanwhile 
one of Pizarro's companions, named De Soto, had set out 
from Spain with an expedition to explore the lands west 
of Florida. Somewhere in that region, it was reported, was 
"the richest country in the world"; and this land De Soto 
was resolved to find and to conquer. He landed (1539) in 
what is now Tampa Bay, in Florida, with 600 men and over 
200 horses. The Indians proved hostile, and since no gold 
or rich cities were there to be found, De Soto turned else- 
where. At one place they met with a white man — a Span- 



290 OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 

iard — who had been taken captive by the Indians, and had 
lived so long among them as a slave that he had almost 
forgotten his native tongue. He proved valuable to De 
Soto as an interpreter. During three years De Soto and his 
men wandered through what are now the states of Georgia, 
Alabama, and Mississippi. Captured Indians were bound 
with collars and chains of iron, and forced to do all the 
heavy labor. Those who refused to work or who tried to 
escape were shot. 

In April, 1541, De Soto made his greatest discovery, when 
he reached the wide, muddy stream of the Mississippi River. 
He crossed to the western bank of the river, and marched 
into Arkansas; but, go where he would, nowhere could he 
find the gold and silver which he sought. Worn out with 
fever and hard traveling, De Soto died in 1542. To prevent 
the Indians from finding his body, it was sunk in the great 
river which he had discovered. After some further explora- 
tions, the survivors of the expedition built boats and floated 
down the Mississippi, and then coasted westward until they 
reached Spanish settlements. Cruel and merciless though 
these men were, they showed courage and perseverance, and 
their expedition helped to make known the land which is 
now the southern part of the United States. 

349. What the Spaniards Sought. The stories of Cortes, 
Pizarro, and De Soto help us to understand what it was that 
the Spaniards sought in the New World. Generally they did 
not wish to establish colonies, as we understand the term — 
that is, they did not come to America to clear the wilder- 
ness and build up homes for themselves and their families 
by their own hard labor. Instead, they sought treasures of 
gold and silver which they might take back with them to 
Spain. They would endure untold hardships and face in- 
credible dangers to secure these, but they thought it be- 
neath their dignity to work with their hands. 



SPANISH CONQUESTS IN AMERICA 291 

350. They Introduce Slavery. Of course those who came 
to America were mostly the greedy, lawless adventurers 
who always flock to mining towns and other frontier places. 
But even the better class, who established plantations in 
the islands of the West Indies, and who opened up mines 
there and elsewhere, did not themselves do the work. They 
introduced the cruel practice of enslaving the Indians, and 
making them work for them. And when the Indians proved 
unsuited to this, and sickened and died under the unaccus- 
tomed labor and the cruel treatment of their masters, black 
people from Africa were brought to America to take their 
places. In this way the curse of negro slavery was fastened 
upon the land, to last until ended by our Civil War. 

The introduction of slavery did not take place without 
some protest. The government at home again and again 
declared that the Indians were free men. Some of the priests, 
too, were very active in fighting these cruel evils. One who 
particularly opposed slavery was a great and good monk 
named Las Casas. He spent a long life in combating this 
evil, preaching that men endangered their own souls by 
holding other men in slavery. His efforts did much to end 
the enslavement of the Indians, and to keep down the num- 
bers of African slaves and to improve their condition. But 
he could not end slavery itself, for the self-interest of the 
planters was against him. 

351. Spanish Missions. We must not get the impression, 
however, that the Spaniards were only treasure-seekers and 
slave-masters. No people of that time were more devoutly 
religious than they, and one of the great objects of their 
explorations and settlements was undoubtedly to convert 
the heathen. This was one of the motives of Columbus, and 
also of Magellan. Wherever the Spaniards formed settle- 
ments, therefore, one of their first cares was to teach the 
Christian religion to the natives. 



292 



OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 



The Franciscan and Dominican friars, who were a special 
kind of monks, took the lead in this work ; and, after the 




SPANISH MISSION OF SANTA BARBARA (California) 

middle of the sixteenth century, the Jesuits took up the 
task. This was done chiefly by the founding of "mission" 
villages. Two or more friars would settle among the Indians, 
build a church and a school, and begin to teach the natives 
the simple truths of the Christian religion, as it was practiced 
in the Catholic Church. They also taught the more promis- 
ing of their pupils to read and write, and trained them in 
habits of peaceful industry and moral living. In some places 
industrial schools were established, where the Indians were 
taught to be tailors, carpenters, blacksmiths, and shoe- 
makers. Soon each mission village came to be a community 
of simple farmers and workmen. From Peru to California 
this work went on, and the solid masonry remains of these 
mission buildings may still be found even in our own land. 
A hundred years before Harvard College was founded by 
the Puritans in Massachusetts, colleges and universities 
were established by the Spaniards in Mexico and in Peru; 



SPANISH CONQUESTS IN AMERICA 293 

and there also the first printing presses in America were 
set up. This work of educating and making Christians of 
the natives was of course much easier in Mexico and Peru, 
because these peoples were more civilized than were the 
Indians who dwelt farther north. It was also helped by the 
fact that many of the Spaniards married Indian wives. The 
result was that the Indians were not driven out as they were 
in the regions settled by the English, but dwelt alongside 
the white race. Today, all through Spanish America, the 
common people generally are of mixed Spanish and Indian 
descent. 

If the Spanish conquest brought much suffering and hard- 
ship to the natives, let us not forget that it brought also 
some of the blessings of civilization, and that, on the whole, 
the good which it wrought was probably greater than the 
evil. 

Topics for Review aud Search 

1. Find out more about the Aztecs in Mexico. 

2. Where did the natives of Mexico and Peru get theii- vast store of 

gold and silver? 

3. Why Avere the Spaniards less successful in the North than in the 

South? 

4. In what countries of North and South America is the Spanish lan- 

guage still spoken? 



CHAPTER XXXVIII 
ENGLAND IN THE DAYS OF ELIZABETH 

Points to Be Noted 

What prevented Spain from gaining all America. 

Growth of England since the Crusades ; her two great wars. 

The Reformation in religion; Martin Luther; Calvin; positions taken 
by Spain and England. 

Early years of Elizabeth ; dangers after she became queen ; her rival ; 
by whom supported ; how Elizabeth was freed from tliis danger. 

Loyalty of the English to Elizabeth ; Sir Walter Raleigh. 

Signs of improvement in England; agriculture; manufactures; com- 
merce. 

English sailors attack Spain in the New World; Sir Fi-ancis Drake; 
effects of his voyage around tlie world. 

English houses; growth in comfort; changes in dress; masques and 
pageants; William Shakespeare, 

352. Why All America Did Not Become Spanish. If we look 
at the situation in America as it was in 1550 — that is, about 
sixty years after Columbus discovered the New World — we 
see that Spain had seemingly outdistanced all her rivals. 
By an agreement arranged by the Pope, Portugal under- 
took to confine her efforts to those parts of the world which 
lay to the east of a north and south line drawn through 
the middle of Brazil. In return Spain agreed not to trespass 
in the region of the Portuguese discoveries in the East 
Indies. The only rivalry which it seemed necessary to fear 
was thus disposed of. Spain might well look forward to the 
completion of what she had already carried so far — namely, 
the peaceful occupation by her subjects of practically the 
whole of North and South America. 

What was it that prevented the accomplishment of this, 
and gave to other nations, especially France and England, 
the best parts of North America? The answer is to be 

2:4 



THE DAYS OF ELIZABETH 295 

found chiefly in two facts — first, the gradual awakening of 
the other nations to a consciousness of the opportunities 
which they were letting slip in America; and second, the 
rise in Europe of political and religious quarrels which tied 
the hands of Spain, so that she was unable to prevent the 
settlement of other nations in regions which she claimed. 

England was the land which accomplished most in this 
way, so we may begin our account by considering her 
position at this time. 

353. Eng-land Since the Crusades. In the period since the 
close of the Crusades the growth of England had been ham- 
pered by two great wars. The first of these was with 
France. Even after the loss of Normandy by King John 
(see p. 168), the English kings continued to possess some 
lands in the French kingdom. In addition to the troubles 
caused by this fact, there came a time when the English 
king claimed to be the rightful king of France, on the ground 
that he was the nearest heir to the French king who had 
just died. When the French nobles rejected this claim, a 
war followed between the two countries which lasted so 
long that it is called the Hundred Years' War. The English 
kings did not secure the French crown; instead, they lost 
the lands which they had long held in France. When this 
war was barely over, there began a civil war in England over 
the right to the English crown. This is called the War of the 
Roses, because one party took the white rose as its badge, 
and the other the red rose. But in spite of these two wars, 
England had grown greatly in wealth and in population 
since the days of King John. Now, under a strong and united 
government, with an able line of rulers, she was beginning 
to make her influence felt in the affairs of Europe. 

354. Religious Reformation in Europe. But before England 
had really awakened to the opportunity which she was 
letting slip in America, there came a great religious change 



296 OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 

in Europe, which we call the Reformation. This began 
in Germany and in Switzerland, but soon spread to many- 
other countries. The chief leader in the movement was a 
German monk named Martin Luther. He threw off the 
Pope's authority, and wished to abolish the monasteries, 
put the church services into the language of the people, 
and make a number of changes in the doctrine or teachings 
of the Church. The Pope and other rulers in the Church, 
however, refused to accept these changes. The result was 
that the people of Europe were divided into two parties — 
the Catholics, who held fast to the old Church, and the 
Protestants, who accepted the changes which Luther and 
other reformers proposed. 

In Switzerland the chief leader of the reformers was John 
Calvin. In some ways he went further in making changes 
than Luther did, and he is especially to be remembered 
as the founder of the Presbyterian Church. Calvin's teach- 
ing spread into Holland, into Scotland, and among many 
of the people of France. It had a great influence also in 
England, and among the English who settled in America. 

355. Spain Heads the Catholic Party. At the time when 
Luther w^as preaching his changes, it happened that the 
Emperor in Germany was Charles V, who was also king 
of Spain. Charles V was a grandson of Ferdinand and Isa- 
bella, and was the most powerful monarch in Europe. But 
he ruled over so many widely separated lands and was so 
constantly engaged in w^ars that he was not able to put down 
the Protestants in Germany. He was successful, however, 
in keeping their teachings out of Spain. The people of Spain 
remained firmly Catholic ; and when Charles' son, Philip II, 
became king, Spain began to take the chief part in opposing 
Protestants everywhere. 

356. Eng:land Heads the Protestants. In England, on the 
other hand, King Henry VIII separated from the Catholic 



THE DAYS OF ELIZABETH 



297 



Church, because the Pope would not grant him a divorce 
from his queen. When his daughter Mary came to the 
throne, she restored the Cathohc Church in England; and 
she and her husband, Philip II of Spain, followed the evil 
practice of that time 
in burning at the stake 
a great many persons 
who refused to accept 
the Catholic faith. 
When Mary died with- 
out children, her half- 
sister Elizabeth suc- 
ceeded her. During 
Elizabeth's reign not 
only was Protestant- 
ism restored, but Eng- 
land became the chief 
champion of that 
cause in Europe. In 
this way Spain and 
England came to be 
the rival heads of op- 
posingreligiousparties. 

357. Queen Elizabeth of England (1558-1603). Elizabeth 
had seen much trouble and passed through many dangers 
while she was still a girl. Her mother, whom Henry VIII 
married after he had divorced his first wife, had later been 
put to death by that cruel tyrant. - Elizabeth was early 
surrounded by Protestant influences; and alternately in 
favor with her father, or out of favor, according to his. 
religious policy at the moment. Her half-sister Mary dis- 
liked her because of the trouble between their mothers, and 
at one time Mary's Spanish advisers strongly urged that 
Elizabeth should be put to death. Even after she had be- 




QUEEN ELIZABETH 
Note the elaborate costume and many jewels 



298 



OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 



come queen her position was not at first secure. A great 
number of Englishmen still clung to the Catholic religion, 
and there were many plots to dethrone her, and even to kill 
her, in order that the old religion might be restored. Also 




LONDON BRIDGE IN THE DATS OF ELIZABETH 

Notice the houses built on the bridge, also the heads of executed rebels and 
criminals over the bridge gate 



all through the early part of her reign there was the danger 
that Spain might aid these plots, by leading an army to 
invade England, and set a Catholic ruler in her place. 

358. Claims of Mary, Queen of Scots. Catholics said that 
Henry VIII's marriage to Elizabeth's mother was not a 
real marriage, because Henry's divorce from his first wife 



THE DAYS OF ELIZABETH 299 

was not lawful. If they were right, Elizabeth had no claim 
to the crown, and it ought to go to the next heir. This was 
Mary Stuart, queen of Scotland; and since she was a good 
Catholic, most of the plots were for the purpose of seating 
her on the throne of England. 

So long as the queen of Scots lived, therefore, Elizabeth's 
throne, and possibly her life, were in danger. Fortunately 
for Elizabeth, at the end of ten years a rebellion broke out 
against Mary in Scotland, and she was obliged to flee into 
England. There Elizabeth kept her in captivity for eighteen 
years, but still the plotting continued. At one time Mary 
sent this message to the Spanish ambassador in England : 

"Tell your master that, if he will help me, I shall be queen 
of England in three months, and the Catholic religion shall 
be restored throughout the land." 

359. Her Execution. For many years Parliament had been 
urging Elizabeth to have Mary put to death. At last, when 
a new plot was discovered, Elizabeth yielded, and the queen 
of the Scots was brought to trial. She was condemned to 
death, and after some hesitation Elizabeth signed the death 
warrant. The Scottish queen went to her execution with 
the courage of a mart}^. 

"Cease to lament," said she to one of her attendants, "for 
you shall now see a final end to Mary Stuart's troubles. 
I pray you take this message when you go — that I die true 
to my religion and to Scotland." 

360. Elizabeth Freed from Danger. The death of the queen 
of the Scots freed Elizabeth from the danger of plots at 
home, although (as we shall see in a later chapter) she 
had still to face a formidable attempt by Spain to conquer 
England. Henceforth her subjects supported her loyally, 
for however much they differed about religious questions, 
none of them wished to see the country ruled by foreigners. 
They saw in their queen, too, the representative of the 



300 OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 

rising greatness and prosperity of England. The fact that 
she was a woman, and unmarried, also caused many of the 
younger nobles and gentlemen to attach themselves to her 
cause with chivalrous devotion. 

361. Sir Walter Raleigh. Sir Walter Raleigh, who was to 
play an important part in the founding of the first English 
colonies in America, was one of the young men who attached 
themselves to Elizabeth's court. He was born near the 
sea, in the western part of England, and as a boy was fond 
of the company of sailors, and of reading all the books 
of voyages on which he could lay his hands. When he 
became a man he entered the queen's service as a soldier. 
There is a story told of the way in which he first attracted 
the notice and won the favor of Elizabeth. She was walking 
with her ladies one day when they came to a muddy place 
in the road. The queen hesitated to go on, as she disliked 
to soil her shoes. Raleigh, who happened to be there, in- 
stantly took off his new plush cloak and spread it over the 
muddy place for the queen to walk on. Elizabeth was 
pleased with his politeness and readiness of wit, as well 
as with his handsome appearance, and she rewarded him 
with several appointments about her court. From being a 
poor gentleman, he soon became a knight and one of the 
most wealthy of the courtiers. But though it was his 
pleasant manners which first won him the queen's favor, 
it was only the stout heart and sound head which he showed 
in her service that enabled him to keep it. 

362. Engfland Strong- and Prosperous. By Elizabeth's time 
the Middle Ages were past, and life and thought were every- 
way more free. England was like a young man just coming 
into the fullness of his vigor and strength. Everywhere there 
was energy and activity such as had never been seen before. 
The result was that England increased greatly in popula- 
tion, prosperity, and wealth. Agriculture was so much im-» 



THE DAYS OF ELIZABETH 301 

proved that it was said one acre produced as much under 
the new methods of farming as two had produced under 
the old. Manufactures grew rapidly, especially the spinning 
of yarn, and the weaving and dyeing of woolen cloth; but 
the work was still done by hand, in the cottages of the 
people, and not (as is now the case) in great factories with 
steam-driven machinery. 




GOLD COIN OF ELIZABETH 

Shows the head of the queen on one side, and on the other the arms of England (three 

lions) "quartered" with the lilies (Ueur-ue-lisj of France 

The increase in shipping and commerce was equally great. 
English fishing vessels had for some time made distant voy- 
ages, even to the cod-fishing "banks" of Newfoundland. 
Now English merchant ships began to take a large part in 
the carrying of goods of all sorts between different parts 
of the world. Just at this time the great trading city of 
Antwerp, in Belgium, was almost destroyed in a war with 
the Spaniards ; and it is said that a third of the merchants 
and manufacturers of the ruined city found new homes on 
the banks of the River Thames. London now became, 
in its turn, the greatest trading city in the world. The 
spices, cotton, and silks of India, the gold and sugar of the 
New World, the timber and fish from the Baltic Sea, were 
there exchanged for the woolen cloths and other manu- 
factures of England. English merchants became the most 
energetic and enterprising, and English sailors and sea- 
captains the most daring and skillful, in all the world. 



302 OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 

363. English Sailors Attack Spain. It was not to be ex- 
pected that merchants and sailors as enterprising as these 
would long permit Spain to enjoy the sole right of settling 
and trading in America. They soon began to cross the At- 
lantic and to trade wherever they liked. When the Span- 
iards opposed them, the English fought with them, and 
sometimes even captured the ships in which Spain was 
bringing home the treasures of gold and silver from the 
mines of Mexico and Peru. Many of these bold English 
sea-captains, it must be confessed, were little better than 
pirates. In addition to fighting the Spaniards, they did 
not hesitate to kidnap slaves on the African coast, and to 
sell them to the colonists of Spain in the New World. 

364. Voyages of Sir Francis Drake. Sir Francis Drake was 
a captain of a different sort. He had early suffered in- 
juries from the Spaniards, and he devoted his life to se- 
curing revenge. In a voyage which he made to Panama, he 
climbed a tree on a mountain ridge, from which he could 
see the South Sea which Balboa had discovered and Magel- 
lan had sailed upon ; and he made a vow that he too would 
"sail once in an English ship in that sea." With this ob- 
ject, Drake set out in 1577 with five small vessels. Two of 
his ships had to be abandoned as unseaworthy, off the 
coast of Brazil. A third was wrecked in a furious storm, 
which they met after passing through the Strait of 
Magellan. A fourth was separated from Drake's vessel by 
the same cause, and returned without him. With the single 
ship which was left, Drake sailed up the western coast of 
South America, plundering Spanish towns, capturing treas- 
ure vessels, and gaining an enormous amount of booty. At 
one place, where they landed for water, they "lighted on a 
Spaniard who lay asleep, and had lying by him thirteen 
bars of silver." "We took the silver," says this account, 
"and left the man." The Spaniards were furious at such 



THE DAYS OF ELIZABETH 



303 



attacks, but Englishmen gloried in what Drake had done. 
Elizabeth showed her great captain as much favor as she 
could without provoking Spain to open warfare. After 
Drake was "sufficiently satisfied and revenged," he prepared 
to return home. To sail back by the way he had come 
would be dangerous, both because of the storms on that 
route and because the Spaniards would be looking for him. 
So Drake turned northward, and searched for some such 
passage through North America to the Atlantic as men then 
expected to find. He did not find this, but he did discover 
the coast of California. In the end, he resolved to return 
by Magellan's route across the Pacific and around the Cape 




DRAKE'S SHIP 
It was in this ship that he voyaged around the world 

of Good Hope. In the Spice Islands they took on as much 
cloves and pepper as their ship could carry. Nearly three 
years after he had set out, Drake landed in England, bring- 
ing with him rich stores of gold, silver, silk, pearls, precious 
stones, and spices. He was the first Englishman to sail 
around the globe. 



304 OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 

365. Improvements in Eng^lish Houses. The wealth which 
EngUsh adventurers and traders were gaining helped to 
produce a great change in English ways of living. Rude 
farmhouses began to give place to fine dwellings of brick 
and stone. Chimneys, which were unknown in the early 
Middle Ages, were introduced, and the smoke from fires 
no longer blackened the ceilings and blinded the inmates 
while seeking an outlet through door or window. The win- 
dows were now filled with sashes of glass, instead of being 
merely closed in cold weather with heavy wooden shutters, 
or covered over with semi-transparent sheets of oiled paper. 
Dwellings thus became lighter and warmer in the dark days 
of winter. In earlier times the floors were covered with layers 
of rushes gathered by the river side, and these became filthy 
and foul smelling before the winter was over, from the bones 
and other refuse dropped among them. Now floors began 
to be covered with rugs and carpets, and the result was 
much more healthful living. Dishes of pewter, and, among 
the nobles, even of silver and gold, began to take the place 
of the earlier wooden and horn utensils. Meat was eaten 
more, and salt fish a great deal less, than had hitherto been 
the case. In the Middle Ages, it was often considered 
enough if one merely succeeded in living, but now people 
began to demand comfort as well. 

366. Wealth and Display of the Nobles. The life of the 
nobles also was greatly changed. The War of the Roses 
had weakened their political power, and now they gave up 
their feudal manner of living. The great households, in 
which the lords dined with their dependents in the large 
halls, were broken up. Thenceforth the lord and his family 
spent their time indoors in what was called the "withdraw- 
ing-room," whence comes our "drawing-room" — that is, the 
sitting-room or parlor. The gloomy castles, with their draw- 
bridges, keeps, and battlemented walls, were abandoned for 



THE DAYS OF ELIZABETH 305 

airier, lighter, more comfortable buildings. The new wealth 
led also to more lavish display in dress; and a love of dis- 
play and of color which today is unknown was shown in the 
dress of the men. Slashed velvets, ruffs, and silken hose, with 
a profusion of jewels and laces, were the ordinary wear of 
the queen's courtiers. Elizabeth herself was especially vain 
and extravagant in dress, and it is said that she had 3000 
gowns of strange fashion, and eighty wigs of different colors. 
367. Masques and Pageants. Masques and pageants, which 
helped to develop modern stage-plays, were a prominent 
feature of the court life. An account of the reception which 
the earl of Leicester gave the queen, when she visited him 




TRAVELING IN STATE IN ELIZABETH'S TIME 

at his castle of Kenilworth, will help us to understand what 
these were. As Elizabeth approached the castle, with her 
train of ladies and more than four hundred attendants and 
servants, in the twilight of a summer evening, she was 
greeted with fireworks, the discharge of cannon, and loud 
outbursts of music. The porter, a huge man with a great 
club, at first pretended to forbid their entrance ; but, upon 
seeing the queen, he dropped his club, humbly presented 
her with his keys, and bade her welcome. As she crossed 
the bridge over a little lake, a raft approached which was 
made up to represent a floating island. This was surrounded 
by sea-horses, on which were mounted persons who repre- 
sented mythical water-deities. A beautiful woman, dressed 
like a queen, stepped forth and represented herself to be 



306 OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 

the famous Lady of the Lake, renowned in the stories of 
King Arthur. She greeted the queen, and surrendered the 
castle and all its possessions to her. Elizabeth remained at 
Kenilworth for seventeen days; and every morning, to feed 
the great company, ten oxen were slaughtered, and to give 
her people drink, sixteen hogsheads of wine were opened, 
and forty hogsheads of beer. William Shakespeare, the great 
English play- writer, lived not far from Kenilworth; and 
perhaps he was among the crowds who came from miles 
around to see the spectacles, and he may have gained there 
some of the ideas which he later employed in the scenes 
represented in his plays. 

All this wealth and splendor testifies to the energy and 
activity of the English people of that time. They had long 
been great travelers, having engaged much in pilgrimages 
and foreign wars. Now their energies were to be centered 
on commerce and maritime adventures, and these were to 
lead them to the founding of colonies as rivals to Spain in 
the New World. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Make a list of the things which prepared the English to compete with 

Spain in the New World. 

2. Find out more about Martin Luther and the Reformation in religion. 

3. Did Elizabeth do right in putting Mary Stuart to death ? Give your 

reasons. 

4. Read Sir Walter Scott's account of Raleigh's first interview with 

Elizabeth. (Kenilworth, eh. xv.) 

5. Locate on the map the places visited by Sir Francis Drake in his 

voyage around the world. 

6. Read Scott's account of Elizabeth's visit to Kenilworth. (Kenil- 

ivorth, ch. XXX.) 

7. Find out more about William Shakespeare and his works. 



CHAPTER XXXIX 
FRANCE IN THE NEW WORLD 

Points to Be Noted 

Scene of French and Spanish rivalry in Europe ; its outcome ; extent of 
the possessions of Charles V; effect on Spanish colonization. 

Character of the French king; the great hero of the war; Bayard's 
training; his deeds; his death. 

Why King Francis turned to America; VeiTazano's voyage; date; Car- 
tier's four expeditions ; what he discovered ; what he sought. 

Settlement of Canada; exploration of the Northwest. 

La Salle's exploration of the Mississippi; results. 

Conflicts between French and English; loss of French empire. 

368. French Rivalry with Spain. France also entered into 
rivalry with Spain, both in the Old World and in the New. 
The quarrel began over power in Italy, which since the 
downfall of the Roman rule had been divided into a number 
of warring states. It was largely, indeed, because Charles V 
was so much occupied with his wars there that he was not 
able to put down the religious Reformation in Germany. 
The outcome of these wars was that Spain secured the island 
of Sicily and a large part of the Italian peninsula itself. 
These territories, added to the kingdom of Spain, the Neth- 
erlands, Germany, and the Spanish possessions in the New 
World, made Charles V one of the greatest monarchs that 
the world had ever seen. But, instead of strengthening 
Spain in its work of colonizing, these great possessions in 
Europe weakened her. The jealousy of all the nations of 
Europe was now aroused toward her, and she was obliged 
to waste the treasures of Mexico and Peru in ceaseless war- 
fare at home. 

369. Bayard, the French Hero. Francis I, the French king, 
was the chief contestant with Charles V for the possession 
of Italy. He was an able king, and fond of literature and 

307 



308 



OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 



art; but, as a wise Frenchman said, he "did everything by 
fits and starts." The great hero of the war on the French 
side, therefore, w^as not the king himself, but a French noble- 
man named Bayard. 




BAYARD 
From an old engraving 



Although feudalism and knighthood were now disappear- 
ing with the increased use of gunpowder, Bayard is re- 
nowned as the ideal knight, "without fear and without re- 
proach." For nearly two hundred years past, each succes- 
sive head of his family had died fighting in battle. Bayard 
had been trained for knighthood in the way described in 
chapter xxvi. While he was a page he attracted the atten- 
tion of the French king by his graceful bearing and good 
manners, and was taken by him to the French court. There 
he became skilled in tournaments, and in all that pertained 
to knighthood. When the wars over Italy broke out, he cap- 
tured a banner in battle, and was rewarded by being made 
a knight. Shortly afterward, in a battle near Milan, he 
pursued the enemy so hotly that he followed them into the 
city, and was taken prisoner ; but the duke of Milan was so 



FRANCE IN THE NEW WORLD 309 

pleased with his bravery that he set him free without a 
ransom. At another time, when thirteen Germans chal- 
lenged thirteen Frenchmen to meet them in battle, Bayard 
was one of the French champions, and his heroism won 
the victory for his side. At still another time, he held a 
bridge single-handed against two hundred Spaniards. 

Bayard served all through these Italian wars, and was 
several times wounded. When Francis I became king, and 




FRENCH BATTLE IN ITALY 
From a sculpture of that time; notice the cannon in the background 

won a great battle near Milan, he too wished to be made a 
knight, and said: 

"Bayard, my friend, I wish to receive knighthood from 
your hands, for you are rightfully held to be the greatest 
knight living." 

But Bayard was not merely a brave warrior; he was an 
able and painstaking general as well. When fortune turned 
against Francis I, and France was threatened with inva- 
sion. Bayard with only 1000 men held a poorly fortified 
town on the French border against the attacks of 35,000 
soldiers of Charles V. All France rang with praise of this 
deed, and the French government publicly thanked Bayard, 
calling him "the saviour of his country." He lived only 
three years after this, dying as the result of a wound re- 
ceived from a musket ball. 



310 OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 

370. King- Francis Turns to the New World. Shortly before 
Bayard died, the French king began to turn his thoughts 
to the New World, where Spain was winning unhampered 
such vast territories. For twenty-five years the hardy 
Norman fishermen had been sending their fishing smacks 
to the "banks" of Newfoundland, but up to this time the 
French had taken no part in voyages of exploration and dis- 
covery. Now an Italian sea-captain named Verrazano 
brought to King Francis rich treasures which he had taken 
out of some captured Spanish ships from America. On 
seeing these the French king exclaimed, in amazement: 
"The Emperor can carry on war against me by means of 
the riches which he draws from the West Indies alone!" He 
resolved to seek a share in the land from which these riches 
came. When told of the agreement, approved by the Pope, 
by which Spain and Portugal had divided the unknown 
world between them, he said: 

"By what right do they monopolize the earth? Did our 
first father Adam make them his sole heirs? If so, I should 
like to see a copy of that will ; and until I do, I shall feel at 
liberty to seize all the land in the New World that I can 
get." 

He appointed Verrazano to command an expedition to 
that region. Verrazano set sail with one ship and fifty 
men, in 1524, and explored the American coast from North 
Carolina to Maine. His was the first ship, apparently, ever 
to enter the great harbor of New York, where today so 
many thousand vessels come and go every year. 

371. Cartier Explores the St. Lawrence (1534-43). But 
Francis I was too busy with his wars in Italy to follow up 
this voyage just then. When he resumed his American 
plans, ten years later, it was to the region about the cod- 
fisheries of Newfoundland that his sailors turned their at- 
tention. Jacques Cartier, one of the hardy Norman sailors, 



FRANCE IN THE NEW WORLD 311 

was the captain who now led the French expeditions. He 
made four voyages to America, and his explorations gave 
the French their title to Canada. On his first voyage he 
entered the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and explored the coasts 
of Newfoundland and New Brunswick. On his second voy- 
age he discovered the St. Lawrence River, and ascended it 
in rowboats as far as where Montreal now stands. He built 
a fort on the site of Quebec, and spent the winter there, 
losing twenty-five of his men from sickness and the severity 
of the weather. It was not, however, until seventy-two 
years later that a permanent settlement was made there, by 
a Frenchman named Champlain. 

What Cartier sought in his voyages to the St. Lawrence 
was what many others were seeking in different parts of 
America at this time — namely, a strait or water passage 
through the unknown continent to the ocean which was now 
known to wash its western shores. When he found that his 
way beyond Montreal was barred by rapids in the St. Law- 
rence River, he named these "the China Rapids," for he 
hoped that when they were once passed a way to China 
might there be found. Rumors of great bodies of water 
lying not far to the west encouraged the French to persevere 
in this quest ; but when these were reached (by Champlain, 
in 1615) they proved to be the Great Lakes. 

372. Settlement of Canada. By this time the French had 
found out that Canada did not afford a passage through to 
the Pacific Ocean, but that it was, nevertheless, a land well 
worth having, because of the rich fur- trade which could be 
carried on with the natives. From that time their work of 
colonization went steadily forward. Quebec was founded in 
1608, and Montreal not long afterwards. Farmers, trappers, 
and fishermen settled along the eastern waterways. Side 
by side fur-traders and missionary priests pushed their 
canoes up the rivers and lakes to the west and northwest. 



312 OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 

Before the end of that century, tradmg posts, forts, and mis- 
sions were established at many important points in the 
northwest such as Detroit, Sault Ste. Marie, and Mackinac. 
Then hardy explorers portaged through the wilderness from 
the rivers flowing into the Great Lakes to those flowing into 
the Ohio and Mississippi rivers. 

373. The French in the Mississippi Valley. One of the most 
dauntless of these French explorers of the West was Ferdi- 
nand La Salle. He determined to trace the course of the 
Mississippi to its mouth and win for France a vast new 
empire. After repeated failures, and in spite of treachery 
and untold hardship, in the midwinter of 1681 he suc- 
ceeded in crossing the Chicago portage, and reached the 
Illinois River. This led him finally out upon the waters of 
the great Mississippi. Down the Mississippi he floated until 
he reached its outlet into the Gulf of Mexico. At one of 
the many mouths of the river he erected a cross bearing the 
arms of France, and took possession of the river and all 
the lands drained by it, in the name of the French king, 
Louis XIV. 

New Orleans, St. Louis, and other French settlements 
were soon made. It seemed as if the Mississippi Valley, from 
the Alleghenies to the Rocky Mountains and from the Gulf 
to the Great Lakes, together with Canada, was to become 
French territory, and that French law and custom and 
speech would prevail there. 

But this was not to be. In a later chapter we shall see 
the beginnings of English settlement on the Atlantic coast 
of the present L^nited States. English settlers also pushed 
westward, and so came in conflict with the French. From 
this and other causes wars between England and France fol- 
lowed, both in America and in Europe. In the end France 
lost all of her American possessions except a few small 
islands. Canada became and still remains a part of the 



FRANCE IN THE NEW WORLD 313 

British Empire. And the Mississippi Valley is now one of 
the most prosperous and progressive sections of our own 
United States. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Locate on a map the countries ruled over by Charles V. 

2. Read stories of King Francis I and of Bayard. (See Pitman, Stories 

of Old France, pages 105-133.) 

3. Why were tlie fishernjen among the first to profit by the discovery of 

America? (Remember the use of fish as food in Catholic 
countries. ) 

4. What mistaken idea of the size of North America must Cartier have 

had? Can you think of anything which helped cause this? (Bal- 
boa's exploit.) 

5. On a map of the United States find portages between the Great 

Lakes and. the Mississippi Valley. 

6. Find reasons why French explorers went northwest instead of south- 

west from Quebec and Montreal. 

7. Read Miss Catherwood's Story of Tonty. Tonty was a companion 

of La Salle. 



CHAPTER XL 
THE DUTCH REVOLT AGAINST SPAIN 

Points to Be Noted 

Location of the Netherlands; nature of the land; dikes and windmills; 

differences between the northern and southern provinces; their 

prosperity. 
Harsh rule of Philip II ; the Duke of Alva and the Council of Blood ; 

a heavy tax imposed. 
William of Orange; why called "the Silent"; he heads the resistance; 

"The Beggars" ; seizure of a seaport ; revolt of the North ; Spanish 

soldiers sack Antwerp; the Catholic provinces join the revolt. 
The union broken ; northern provinces form the Union of Utrecht ; 

declaration of independence. 
Siege of Ley den; murder of William of Orange; continuance of the 

war; a truce practically ends the struggle. 
Importance for Americans of the revolt of the Dutch. 

374. The Netherlands. In addition to French and English 
rivalry, another serious hindrance to Spain's colonizing 
plans was the revolt of its Dutch subjects. Among the many- 
lands over which Charles V had ruled was the district called 
the Netherlands. This lay on both sides of the mouth of 
the River Rhine; and it was called the Netherlands, or 
"Low Countries," because the land was so low and flat. 
Much of it, indeed, lay below the level of the sea. Strong 
embankments, called dikes, stretched for miles along the sea 
and rivers, ever thrusting back the hungry waves. Giant 
windmills, with slow-moving arms, ceaselessly pumped out 
the waters which seeped through these earthen walls. Pa- 
tient toil had reclaimed these lands from the sea, and unre- 
mitting vigilance was necessary to keep what had been 
gained. 

The southern half of the Netherlands now makes up the 
little kingdom of Belgium. Here were located many flour- 
ishing towns, which were famous for their commerce, and 

314 



DUTCH REVOLT AGAINST SPAIN 315 

for their cloth and other manufactures. The people of these 
districts were related to the French in their speech and in 




SCENE IN HOLLAND 
From a painting by the Dutch artist Van Ruysdael (died 1682) 

their history; while in the north the language (Dutch) 
was related to the German. The northern half of the Neth- 
erlands today makes up the kingdom of Holland. Here 
fishing, agriculture, and dairying were the chief industries, 
though the commerce also was important. 

375. Their Prosperity. When Philip II became ruler over 
the Netherlands, he found these lands thickly populated, 
and very rich and prosperous. Their fleets traded on every 
sea. Two hundred fifty vessels often lay at one time in 
the harbor of Antwerp, their chief city ; and merchants from 
all countries thronged its banking houses. An old writer 
says of these sturdy mariners and merchants: "Like bees 



316 OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 

they gathered honey from all the world. Norway was their 
forest; the banks of the Rhine and southern France were 
their vineyards; Germany, Spain, and Ireland their sheep 
pastures; Prussia and Poland their grain fields; India and 
Arabia their spice gardens." They drew more profit than 
Spain and Portugal themselves from the discovery of the 
New World and of the ocean route to India ; for their com- 
merce brought to them alike the gold and silver of Mexico 
and Peru, and the precious wares of the distant East. 

376. The Northern Provinces Become Protestant. The 
Netherlands did not make up a single state. Instead the 
land was divided into a number of different provinces, which 
were only loosely united. When the Reformation in re- 
ligion came, the northern provinces became Protestant, 
while the southern ones remained Catholic. Charles V had 
himself been born in the Netherlands, and although he tried 
to put down the Protestants there, he governed the prov- 
inces kindly, and the people remained loyal to him. 

377. Harsh Rule of King Philip. His son Philip, however, 
was a man of very different sort. He was cold, cruel, and 
obstinate, and he made it his life work to stamp out the 
Protestant religion wherever he could. Moreover, he set 
Spaniards and other corrupt oppressive foreigners to rule 
the Netherlands; and he supported their rule with Span- 
ish soldiers who often plundered and mistreated the people. 

Both Catholics and Protestants cried out loudly at these 
violations of their privileges, but in vain. Instead of re- 
forming the abuses complained of, Philip punished the men 
who complained. Then riots broke out, and some reckless 
Protestants seized this opportunity to break into Catholic 
churches and destroy the crucifixes and images which they 
found there. Philip replied by appointing as governor of 
the Netherlands one of the sternest, cruelest, most bigoted 
of Spaniards — the duke of Alva. 




DUTCH REVOLT AGAINST SPAIN 317 

378. Tyranny of the Duke of Alva. The duke of Alva came 
with an army of 10,000 men, and proceeded to restore order. 
A court, which was popularly called the "Council of Blood," 
was set up especially to hunt down those who had taken part 
in the recent riots, or were suspected of being heretics. Two 
Catholic noblemen who had 
taken a leading part in pro- 
testing against the misgovern- 
ment were seized and put to 
death. Many thousand lesser 
persons were burned, hanged, 
or beheaded. The trials were 
most unfair. One member 
of this wicked court usually 
slept during its proceedings; 

but when aroused from his william the silent 

naps, without inquiring who 

was on trial or for what, he would cry out, "To the gallows, 
to the gallows with him!" To get money to pay his troops 
and to carry on this cruel work, Alva made a law that when- 
ever any goods of any sort were sold in the shops or mar- 
kets one-tenth of the price must be paid to his officers. 
The result was that shops were shut and trade came to a 
standstill. The Netherlands were on the brink of ruin. 

379. William of Orange Heads Revolt of the Netherlands. 
That they were not ruined, but that instead the Dutch 
Netherlands succeeded in throwing off the tyranny of Spain, 
and establishing a government of their own, was owing to 
the great abilities and patriotic efforts of Prince William 
of Orange. He is called William "the Silent," from the good 
sense with which he held his tongue when, at one time, the 
king of France incautiously spoke to him of an agreement 
which France had made with Spain for rooting out heresy 
in the Netherlands. "From that hour," wrote William 



318 OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 

twenty years later, "I resolved with my whole soul to do my 
best to drive this Spanish vermin out of the land." William 
now put himself at the head of the resistance to the duke 
of Alva's tyranny. The rebels took the name of "The Beg- 
gars," from a contemptuous remark which one of the Span- 
ish ministers made about them. Many of them took to the 
sea and attacked the Spanish merchant vessels; and in 1572 
a band of these "Sea Beggars" succeeded in seizing and 
fortifying one of the seaports. This was the signal for re- 
volt throughout the northern provinces. When the Spanish 
soldiers, with bloody fury, seized and almost destroyed Ant- 
werp, even the Catholic provinces cast in their lot with their 
Protestant brothers. 

This union, however, did not last long. The Catholic 
provinces returned to their obedience when a wiser and 
milder ruler was appointed to take Alva's place; but the 
Protestant provinces kept up the revolt. The seven north- 
ern provinces now joined in a union called the "Union of 
Utrecht" (1579). Two years later, they issued a declara- 
tion of independence. This was almost two centuries before 
the English colonies in America issued their famous declara- 
tion. 

380. Siege of Leyden (1574). The Spaniards, after long 
sieges, took several important towns, the people of which 
they treated with great cruelty. But they could not cap- 
ture the city of Leyden. This was situated on low ground, 
about six miles from the sea, and was well defended with 
walls. Under the lead of their heroic burgomaster, or 
mayor, the citizens held out for four months. For seven 
weeks there was no bread within the city, and the people 
died by hundreds. But still the city would not surrender. 
At last William ordered that the dikes should be cut. The 
sea, aided by a high tide and strong wind, swept over the 
land, drowning about 1000 of the besiegers; and Dutch 



DUTCH REVOLT AGAINST SPAIN 319 

barges, loaded with men and supplies, relieved the town. 
For this heroic defense, the town was given a university, 
which became very famous, and where many Englishmen 
studied who later took part in colonizing America. 

381. Murder of William of Orange (1584). The war dragged 
on for a long time. King Philip had taken the cowardly 
step of offering a great reward to anyone who would mur- 
der William of Orange. At last, after several attempts, that 
great man was treacherously shot and mortally wounded 
(1584), He was a great statesman, and played the same 
part in securing the independence of the Dutch Netherlands 
that George Washington did for the American colonists; 
but unlike Washington, he did not live to enjoy the victory. 

In spite of the death of their heroic leader, the Dutch 
continued their struggle. But now there was less states- 
manship in their counsels. The different provinces were 
jealous of one another, opposing parties arose among the 
people, and the leaders engaged in desperate quarrels. One 
party wished to offer the crown of the Dutch Netherlands 
to France, and the other to England. Both countries were 
jealous of the overgrown power of Spain and sent aid to the 
Dutch ; but neither country dared accept the perilous offer 
of the crown. 

382. The Dutch Gain Their Independence. At last, in 1609, 
after King Philip's death, when Spain was worn out with 
the long struggle and was distracted by the many difficulties 
which surrounded her, a truce was made between Spain and 
her revolted provinces. The final recognition of their inde- 
pendence was withheld for many years, but this truce prac- 
tically ended the struggle. At the commencement of the 
revolt, the southern provinces had been the richest and most , 
prosperous part of the Netherlands. At the close of the 
struggle these provinces were almost a desert, and wolves, 
we are told, roamed over the untilled fields. Trade had 



320 OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 

.shifted from the districts which remained under Spanish 
rule to those which had estabhshed their independence. 
Amsterdam, the chief city of the Dutch provinces, took the 
place of Antwerp, the ruined and almost deserted city of 
the south. 

383. Importance of This Strug-gfle to America. In many 
ways this successful revolt of the Dutch subjects of Spain 
is of importance to us Americans. It was one of the chief 
factors in preventing Spain from going ahead and estab- 
lishing its rule throughout the whole of America. Not only 
that, but the Dutch themselves, after the successful out- 
come of their struggle, took up the work of colonization, and 
explored the Hudson River and made permanent settle- 
ments in what is now the state of New York. In this way 
they had an important part in the making of one of the 
original thirteen colonies. The example of the Dutch revolt 
from Spain, also, encouraged the American colonists when 
it came their turn to revolt against the misgovernment of 
England in America. The experience of the Dutch taught 
us the wisdom of granting freedom of worship to persons 
of different religious beliefs. Finally, the lessons learned by 
them in their efforts to unite their seven provinces into a 
single republican government proved of the greatest value 
to our forefathers when, after our War of the Revolution, 
they sought to unite the thirteen states into a federal gov- 
ernment. We learned directly from the Dutch many things 
which were of value ; but, no less, we learned from their mis- 
takes and misfortunes many things to be avoided. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Find out what you can about life in Holland today. 

2. Read the letter of Philip II to his little dausrhters (see Robinson, 

Beadings in European History, II, pages 170-171). Wliat good 
side of his character does this show? 

3. Find out more about the life and character of William of Orange. 



CHAPTER XLI 

ENGLAND DEFEATS THE SPANISH ARMADA 

Points to Be Noted 

"Why Englishmen aided the Dutch; attitude of Queen Elizabeth. 

Character of Sir Philip Sidney; why England mourned his loss. 

Grounds of King Philip's quarrel with Elizabeth ; his preparations to in- 
vade England. 

How Drake "singed the Spanish king's beard"; results; why the ex- 
ploit was not repeated. 

Coming of the Armada; strength of the Spanish and English fleets; 
the English commanders; course which they adopted; why the 
Armada stopped at Calais; how the Spanish plan was foiled; fate 
of the Armada. 

Causes of the English success. 

Decline of Spain's power ; effect on England ; interference with English 
colonies prevented. 

384. England Aids the Dutch. It was natural that English- 
men should wish to aid the Dutch in their revolt against 
King Philip. They sympathized with the Dutch because 
they were Protestants ; and they hated Spain, both because 
English sailors were put to death as heretics when they fell 
into Spanish hands, and because they were barred from 
trade and settlement in the New World. Queen Eliza- 
beth was ready to do all that she could against Spain, ex- 
cept go to war with Philip. "I think it is good," she wrote, 
"that the King of Spain should be hindered both in Por- 
tugal, and in his Islands, and also in the Low Countries; 
and I am ready to give such indirect assistance as will not at 
once be a cause of war." 

So Elizabeth rewarded the sea-captains, like Drake, who 
attacked the Spaniards in the New World ; and she secretly 
sent aid to the Dutch. After the murder of William of 
Orange, she went further, and openly sent an army to 

321 



323 OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 

the Netherlands, under the command of an English noble- 
man. 

385. Sir Philip Sidney. The hero of the English war in 
the Netherlands, however, was not the commander of the 
army, but an English gentleman named Sir PhiUp Sidney. 
He was not as great a warrior as the French hero Bayard 
had been, but he became quite as famous; for, in addition 
to being a good soldier, he was also a wise statesman, a 
poet, and a learned and lovable man. When he was only 
eleven years old, he wrote letters to his father both in Latin 
and in French. "If he goes on in the course he has begun," 
wrote a great nobleman of Elizabeth's court, "he will be as 
famous and worthy a gentleman as ever England bred." 

When Sidney became a man he abundantly fulfilled this 
prophecy. He became an officer of Elizabeth's court, and 
urged her to make war upon Spain. When the war began, 
he was appointed to govern one of the towns in the Nether- 
lands which was put in England's hands. But he was not 
content to remain out of danger while others were fighting ; 
so he took part in the war as a volunteer — that is, without 
having a definite appointment from the queen. In a 
cavalry charge against a Spanish force, many times as large 
as the English, he showed great bravery and daring. When 
his horse was shot from under him, he mounted another and 
fought his way through the enemy's ranks. He received a 
serious wound in the leg, and could scarcely manage to 
make his way back to the English camp. He arrived there 
faint from the loss of blood and parched with thirst. But 
when he was about to drink from a bottle of water which 
was brought to him, he noticed that the eyes of a dying 
soldier were fixed greedily upon the flask. Sidney at once 
handed him the water, saying : "Your need is even greater 
than mine." In those days doctors did not know as much 
about medicine as they do now ; and in spite of all that they 



THE SPANISH ARMADA 323 

could do, Sidney died of his wound. It was partly such 
kindness as this which he showed to the dying soldier, as 
well as his great abilities, which made the whole English 
nation mourn his loss. 

386. King Philip Prepares to Invade England. King Philip 
was naturally made very angry by the aid which the Eng- 
lish gave the Dutch, and by the many attacks on his sub- 
jects in the New World. In addition, he had another ground 
of quarrel with Elizabeth. Through one of his ancestors 
he was descended from the royal family of England; and 
already, during his marriage with Elizabeth's half-sister 
Mary, he had borne the title king of England. Moreover, 
when Mary queen of Scots was put to death, in the year 
after Sidney's death, she made King Philip the heir to her 
claim on the English throne. Both because of his quarrel 
with Elizabeth, and because of his claims to the throne of 
that country, Philip now resolved to make war upon Eng- 
land. The war was to be both an attempt to conquer the 
country and a crusade to restore the Catholic religion. 

387. Sir Francis Drake at Cadiz. Accordingly, he began to 
prepare in the harbors of Spain a great fleet, called in Span- 
ish an "armada." Queen Elizabeth hesitated, and tried 
negotiating with King Philip. But the hardy English sea- 
captains did not propose to sit still and wait to be attacked. 
Sir Francis Drake had been appointed to command an Eng- 
lish fleet, with instructions to prevent the gathering to- 
gether of the Armada. Rightly fearing that the queen 
might change her mind, he slipped off to sea before new in- 
structions could reach him. He sailed boldly into the Span- 
ish harbor of Cadiz, where he burned thirty-three of Philip's 
ships, captured four others, and destroyed immense quan- 
tities of food and other supplies which had been collected 
for the Spanish fleet. Drake called this "singeing the Span- 
ish king's beard." Before he returned home he also cap- 



324 



OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 



THE ARMADA 

1588 
. Armada ^ 

.... English g/ 




FRANCE 



ROUTE OP THE SPANISH ARMADA 



THE SPANISH ARMADA 325 

tured a vessel which was bringing to Portugal (then under 
Spanish rule) great treasures from the East Indies. He 
thus paid all the expenses of his expedition, and also opened 
the eyes of English merchants to the enormous value of the 
trade with the East. 

388. The Great Armada Sets Sail (1588). The damage which 
Drake had done to King Philip's fleet made it necessary to 
postpone the sailing of the Armada for a whole year. Drake 
and other sea-captains urged the queen to let them again 
attack the Spaniards in their own harbors, as the best 
way of saving England from the danger of the Armada ; but 
Elizabeth would not give them permission. As a result. 
King Philip was able to complete his preparations; and at 
last, after many difficulties, the Great Armada set sail for 
the shores of England. 

When the Spanish fleet appeared in the English Channel, 
the news was flashed by bonfires, from hilltop to hilltop, all 
along the coast. The Armada consisted of 132 vessels, many 
of them great high-decked ships, crowded with soldiers. 
Some were galleys rowed by oars, such as had been used in 
the Mediterranean Sea since the days of ancient Greece and 
Rome. The commander was a Spanish nobleman who 
knew nothing about the sea and had never even commanded 
an army before. He was appointed, in spite of his own pro- 
tests, on account of his noble rank. The English fleet was 
somewhat larger ; in it were 197 vessels most of which were 
smaller than those in the Armada, but swifter and more 
easily managed. They were also commanded and manned 
by the best seamen and gunners in the world. Because 
Drake was not a nobleman, he was given the second place 
in command instead of the first ; but Lord Howard, who was 
made commander-in-chief, was himself a bold and skillful 
sailor, and was guided largely by Drake's advice. 

An old story says that when news of the coming of the 



326 



OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 




THE SPANISH ARMADA 327 

Spanish fleet was first received, Lord Howard, with Drake 
and other captains, was ashore at the harbor of Plymouth, 
in the southwest of England, They were in the midst of a 
game called "bowls," in which wooden balls are rolled upon 
the grass. Lord Howard wished to put to sea at once, but 
Drake prevented him, saying: "There's plenty of time to 
win this game, and to thrash the Spaniards too." 

389. Defeat and Destruction of the Armada. The English 
ships allowed the Spanish fleet to pass by Plymouth, and 
then followed it up the Channel. For a whole week, from 
Plymouth to the French seaport of Calais, the English hung 
upon the rear of the Spaniards — now advancing, now nim- 
bly retiring, but always fighting, and "plucking the feath- 
ers" (as they called it) of the Armada one by one. Philip 
had ordered the Spanish commander in the Netherlands to 
have an army ready when the Armada arrived, to cross over 
to England under its protection. It was to get news of this 
army that the Spanish fleet anchored at Calais. But the 
English captains found means to prevent the union of the 
Spanish fleet with the Spanish army. Under cover of the 
night, they sent into the harbor a number of ships loaded 
with tar and other quick-burning substances, and set fire 
to them. When the Spaniards saw these fire-ships drifting 
down upon them, they cut their anchor cables in panic, and 
sailed out to sea again. After another all-day fight, the 
Spaniards turned northward, sailing before a southerly 
breeze. They failed to take on the army to invade Eng- 
land, and already the expedition was a failure. 

Worse, however, was to follow. The Spaniards tried to 
return to Spain by sailing around the northern coasts of 
Scotland and Ireland. The English vessels were now out 
of powder and provisions, and so gave up the chase. The 
summer proved to be one of the stormiest ever known, and 
scores of the clumsy Spanish vessels were dashed to pieces 



328 OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 

on the Scottish and Irish shores. The shipwrecked Span- 
iards were either drowned or were put to death when they 
reached the shore. An Enghsh of&cer wrote that at one 
place in Ireland he counted more than a thousand Spanish 
corpses in a five mile walk along the coast. Of all that 
great fleet, less than half returned to Spain. 

390. Why the Eng^lish Won. King Philip did not blame 
his admiral for this disaster. "I sent you to fight against 
men," he said, "and not with the winds." But it was not 
the winds alone which had given the English their great 
victory. It was the superiority of the English vessels over 
the slower Spanish ones ; it was the greater daring and sea- 
manship of the English sea-captains; it was the intrepid 
courage and skillful marksmanship of the English sailors. 
Man for man, and vessel for vessel, the English were bet- 
ter than the Spaniards. This was largely so because the 
English were free men, fighting for their faith and for their 
homes; while the Spaniards were subjects of a despotic gov- 
ernment, under a king who had no great ability. 

391. The Decline of the Power of Spain. After the defeat 
of the Armada by the English, the power of Spain rapidly 
declined. England was thenceforth freed from the fear 
of Spanish conquests. The Dutch soon won such successes 
that they were sure of keeping the liberty which they had 
gained. Even France might have won from Spain the con- 
trol in Italy which that kingdom had secured, if it had not 
been for the terrible religious wars which were wasting 
France, and which not long afterwards broke out in Ger- 
many also. Gradually it was seen that Spain could not even 
hold her place as the first power in Europe, to say nothing 
of keeping other nations out of the New World. 

392. England Turns to Colonization. Upon the English, 
the effect of the victory over Spain was to spur them on to 
new and greater enterprises. The whole nation now shared 



THE SPANISH ARMADA 329 

the spirit of men like Drake, and the close of Elizabeth's 
reign saw a burst of energy in all lines of activity. Before 
this time the English had been held back from founding 
colonies in the New World by their troubles at home, by 
their poverty, by their lack of interest, and above all 
by the fear of Spain, Now all this was past. They could go 
ahead and make settlements in those vast regions whose 
coasts John Cabot had explored, without fear that their 
colonies would be destroyed by Spanish soldiers. Zeal for 
the Protestant religion, hope of gain, and that love of ad- 
venture which had sent forth the roving sea-captains to 
prey on Spanish commerce were now turned in the direc- 
tion of colonizing the New World. The result was that the 
foundations were soon laid of the trade, colonial empire, 
and maritime power which make England today "the mis- 
tress of the seas." 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Find out more about Sir Philip Sidney. 

2. Read the account of the fight with the Armada in Charles Kingsley's 

Westward Ho! Chapter xxxi. 

3. Was the defeat of the Armada due more to the policy of Queen 

Elizabeth, or to that of her ministers and captains? Give rea- 
sons for your answer. 

4. Read letters written by Elizabeth's captains during the fight with the 

Armada. (See Kendall, Source Book of English History, pp. 
178-184; or Cheyney, Readings in English History, pp. 404-408.) 

5. Of what lack do the captains complain in these letters? 

6. Read Tennyson's poem, "The Revenge: A Ballad of the Fleet" (a 

sea-fight with the Spaniards in 1591). 



CHAPTER XLII 
ENGLISH COLONIZATION BEGUN 

Points to Be Noted 

Why Englishmen wished to found colonies. 

Sir Walter Raleigh's first expedition; why he did not go in person; 
where it went; description of the land and people; why named 
Virginia; Indian corn, potatoes, and tobacco found there. 

Raleigh's first colony; where planted; governor; relations with the In- 
dians; why and how the colonists returned. 

Arrival of ships with supplies ; men left to hold the country ; their fate. 

Raleigh's second colony ; why the governor returned to England ; num- 
ber of colonists left behind ; Virginia Dare ; cause of delay in send- 
ing supplies ; what the governor found on his return ; probable fate 
of this Lost Colony ; end of Raleigh's attempts at colonizing. , 

New interest in colonizing under James I ; beginning of permanent Eng- 
lish colonies. 

393. Sir Walter Raleigh's Expedition. Men like Sir Francis 
Drake thought of the New World only as a field for trading 
and plundering expeditions which would enrich themselves 
and satisfy their hatred of Spain. There were other Eng- 
lishmen, however, who looked further ahead, and saw in it 
an opportunity to extend England's power by founding 
homes for Englishmen across the seas. 

Sir Walter Raleigh, one of Queen Elizabeth's courtiers, 
held this view of America. He obtained permission from 
the queen to explore the coasts of North America claimed 
by England and to found a colony there. 

Raleigh very wisely sent out first an exploring expedition 
to find a suitable location for his colony. He did not go 
himself with his expedition, because Queen Elizabeth did not 
want him to risk his life in such distant ventures. Instead, 
he appointed two captains to command the two ships which 
he sent out. They left England in the spring of 1584. After 
sighting the West Indian islands, they sailed up the coast of 

330 



ENGLISH COLONIZATION BEGUN 



331 



Florida and the Carolinas until they came to Roanoke 
Island, lying between Pamlico Sound and Albemarle 
Sound. Here the first attempt was to be made to found an 
English colony in what is now the 
territory of the United States. 

394. The Country Called Virginia. 
In the account of their voyage 
which the two captains gave to 
Raleigh, they said that the soil was 
"the most plentiful, sweet, 
fruitful, and wholesome of 
all the world." There was 
timber of large size and 
many kinds, and many 
sweet-smelling trees and 
shrubs, including sassa- 
fras, which was then used in 
Europe as a medicine. There 
was plenty of fine fish and game ; 
and melons, walnuts, cucumbers, 
gourds, peas, and beans, and dif- 
ferent kinds of roots. The wild 
grapes were so plentiful that 
"in all the world the like 
abundance is not to be found." 
The natives, too, were "most 
gentle, loving, and faithful." - 
When the newcom- 
ers were received 
by one of the chiefs, , 
"he made all signs 
of joy and welcome, 

... v." V. rl ^^ INDIAN WARRIOR 

StriKmg on niS Jieaa From a drawing by Governor White. Notice 

and his breast, and ''' ^^.t^'''lm\feir:ir''''' 




332 



OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 





fe 




AN INDIAN VILLAGE 
From a drawing by Governor White 



ENGLISH COLONIZATION^ BEGUN" 333 

afterwards on ours, to show that we were all one, smiling 
and making signs the best he could of love and familiarity." 
The Indians loaded the voyagers with many gifts, and two 
of the tribe offered to go with them to England. When 
this favorable report was brought back, there was great 
enthusiasm in England. Elizabeth was called the Virgin 
Queen, because she never married ; and she herself gave the 
name "Virginia," in her own honor, to the new land. 

395. Three New Plants Brought to England. Later reports 
showed that three important new plants were to be found 
in that country. The most important of these was maize, 
or Indian corn. "The grain of this," wrote one explorer, 
"is about the bigness of our ordinary English peas, and not 
much different in form and shape, but of different colors — 
some white, some red, some yellow, and some blue." The 
height of the stalks, some growing ten feet tall, and the 
great yield of 500 to 700 grains to the ear, surprised the 
Europeans. "Of these grains," added this writer, "besides 
bread, the inhabitants make food either by parching them, 
or stewing them whole until they are broken, or boiling the 
meal with water into a mush." This new grain was to prove 
a great addition to the food supply of the whole world. 

The potato, which was also found in Virginia, was to 
prove of even greater value. It was described as "a kind 
of root in round form, some of the bigness of a walnut, some 
far greater, which grow many together as though they were 
fastened with a string." "Being boiled or stewed," the 
writer added, "they are very good food." The introduction 
of the potato did more than anything else, perhaps, to end 
the almost constant famines which in the Middle Ages dis- 
tressed the different regions of Europe. 

The third new plant was tobacco. It was described as an 
herb "the leaves of which, when dried and made into a pow- 
der, they smoke through pipes of clay." It was wrongly 



334 OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 

believed that its use was healthful, and that because of it 
the Indians were preserved from "many grievous diseases 
with which we in England are often times afflicted." Sir 
Walter Raleigh made the smoking of tobacco popular in 
England, and its use spread rapidly throughout the Old 
World. Upon the cultivation and export of this plant the 
success of the English colony in Virginia was finally to be 
based. 

396. Raleigh's First Colony (1585). As a result of the 
favorable reports of the new land, there was no difficulty 
in fitting out seven ships, in 1585, with many settlers, to 
found a colony there. There was some talk of having Sir 
Philip Sidney command the expedition, but Queen Eliza- 
beth was as unwilling to have him go as she was to have 
Raleigh make such a venture. Instead, a rash, fiery man 
named Grenville was chosen to command the expedition. 
This was very unfortunate, as we shall soon see. 

The settlers were landed on Roanoke Island, in July, 
1585. Through the Indians who had been taken to Eng- 
land the year before, and who had learned to speak English, 
they were now able to talk with the natives. But trouble 
soon broke out as a result of the harsh temper of the com- 
mander, Grenville. While exploring the shores of the main- 
land near Roanoke, a silver cup was stolen by the natives 
from the white men. Grenville returned to demand it, and 
when it was not given to him, he burned the Indian village 
and destroyed the corn in their fields. The result was that 
the English lost the good will of the Indians, which at the 
time of the former voyage had been shown them in such a 
marked manner. 

After spending about two months in the country, Gren- 
ville set sail for England. He left behind him a colony of 
about a hundred men, under the command of a gentleman 
named Lane. The settlers, instead of planting fields and 



EN^GLISH COLONIZATION BEGUN 335 

clearing the wilderness, spent their time in hunting for a 
gold mine and a pearl fishery which they understood the 
Indians to say were in that part of the country. They 
found nothing of value, and their relations with the Indians 
became worse and worse. 

397. Return of the Colonists to England (1586). The new- 
comers were dependent upon the Indians for food ; but the 
next spring they found that the natives were planning to 
''run away" and leave their corn-fields unplanted, in 
order to starve out the colonists. Fear of the white men's 
terrible guns, and the advice of a friendly chief, led the 
Indians to abandon this plan. Soon after this the friendly 
chief died. Then the Indians formed a plan to surprise and 
kill the white men. Governor Lane learned of this plan 
from a captive Indian, and struck first. Taking a number 
of his best soldiers, he went to the chiefs, as though he 
wanted to talk to them; then suddenly he gave a signal, 
and nine of them were treacherously slain. Fortunately 
for the settlers, a fleet of English ships under Sir Francis 
Drake appeared a few days later, and he agreed to take the 
colonists back to England. A writer of that time says that 
"they left all things confusedly, as if they had been chased 
from thence by a mighty army." He adds: "And no doubt 
so they were, for the hand of God came upon them for the 
cruelty and outrages committed by some of them against 
the native inhabitants of that country." 

About two weeks after Governor Lane and his colonists 
had departed, Captain Grenville returned to Virginia with 
three ships, bringing supplies. He could learn nothing of 
what had become of the former colony. To keep possession 
of the country, he landed fifteen men on Roanoke Island, 
with plenty of provisions ; and then he returned to England. 

398. Raleigh's Second Colony (1587). Next year Sir Walter 
Raleigh sent out a second colony. It went in three vessels. 



336 OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 

and was under John White as governor, a gentleman who 
had been in the first colony under Governor Lane. For the 
first time women and children were included in the com- 
pany. This was done because it was rightly thought that 
the men would be more likely to remain as settlers, and 
found homes in the New World, if their families went with 
them. When they reached Roanoke Island, the fifteen men 
who had been left there the year before had disappeared. 
A few human bones were found lying near the deserted 
houses. From some friendly Indians on the mainland it 
was learned that the settlers had been attacked by hostile 
natives, and had perished. 

Governor White wished to go to Chesapeake Bay, and 
found the new colony on its shores. But the captain of the 
ships was in a hurry to attack the Spaniards in the West 
Indies, so he landed the colonists on the ill-fated Roanoke 
Island. In those days ships were usually so small that it 
was impossible to carry a large number of colonists, and at 
the same time bring supplies enough to feed the colony for 
a long period. It was arranged, therefore, that Governor 
White should go back to England wdth the ships, in order 
to hasten on the sending of provisions and other needful 
things. He left behind him ninety men, seventeen women, 
and eleven children. One of these children was his own 
little granddaughter, who had been born since the party 
landed. Because she was the first English child born in 
America, she was named "Virginia" Dare. 

399. The Fate of the Colony. No one can tell what became 
of these colonists. When Governor White reached Eng- 
land, he found the whole nation busied with preparations 
for resisting the Great Armada. One expedition which he 
led to the relief of his colony was turned back by the Span- 
iards. Three years passed before he actually succeeded in 
reaching Roanoke Island again. We can imagine the 



ENGLISH COLOXIZATION^ BEGUN" 337 

anxiety with which he must have searched for traces of his 
daughter and little granddaughter, and all the other colo- 
nists. But they were never found. The houses on the island 
had been pulled down, perhaps to help make the strong 
wooden stockade which now surrounded the spot where they 
had stood. Some chests which the settlers had evidently 
buried had been dug up by the Indians and robbed of their 
contents. On one of the trees was carved the word Croatoan, 
which was the name of an island about fifty miles down the 
coast, where the natives had been very friendly to the white 
men. It was supposed that the colonists had removed to 
that place, to escape the hostility of the Indians near 
Roanoke Island. Storms, however, and the loss of some of 
the ship's anchors, made the captains afraid to stay any 
longer on that dangerous coast. They returned to England, 
without searching farther, and it was some years before an- 
other expedition visited that region. 

Nothing was ever learned of the fate of this "Lost 
Colony." Most of its members must soon have perished, 
either from hunger or from the attacks of hostile Indians. 
Perhaps the children and women, and some of the men, 
were spared, and kept as captives. If so, they must gradu- 
ally have lost their English ways and speech, as time went 
on, and become like the Indians among whom they lived. 
The attempt to found an English colony in Virginia had 
led to the death or disappearance of fully one hundred and 
fifty persons. Sir Walter Raleigh had spent so much money 
in these expeditions that he was practically ruined, and was 
obliged to give up all thought of further attempts. 

400. Permanent English Colonies Founded. But this was 
not to be the end of English colonization in America. With 
every expedition English knowledge of America was in- 
creased, and English interest quickened. King James I, 
who succeeded Elizabeth in 1603, made peace with Spain; 



338 OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 

and the restless spirits, who had been gaining booty by 
plundering Spanish ships and colonies, then turned to the 
more useful work of building English settlements on the 
North Atlantic coast of America. Nineteen years after the 
disappearance of the Lost Colony of Roanoke, there were 
formed two rich and powerful companies in England, called 
the London Company and the Plymouth Company, to trade 
and settle in America. Under these companies the James- 
town colony in Virginia was founded in 1607, and then the 
Plymouth colony in Massachusetts, in 1620. 

401. Growth into the United States. This was the begin- 
ning of the permanent English colonies in America. In 
your later studies you will learn when, by whom, and under 
what circumstances, each of these colonies was founded ; you 
will read how the settlers had to struggle against the wilder- 
ness and against hostile Indians; how their numbers grew 
and their settlements flourished ; how they helped England 
to conquer the French settlements in Canada; and how quar- 
rels then arose between the colonists and the mother coun- 
try, which led to the War of the Revolution and the Dec- 
laration of Independence. All of this, and more, too, you 
will learn when you come to study these English colonies, 
which grew, in course of time, into our own United States. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. In what ways did the Indians of Virginia dififer from the natives 

of Mexico? 

2. "Were the white men or the Indians most to blame for the hostilities 

between them ? Give your reasons. 

3. Compare the treatment of the Indians hj Kaleigh's settlers with their 

treatment by De Soto and the Spaniards. 

4. Which profited Europe most — the coi-n and potatoes of Virginia, or 

the gold and silver of Mexico and Peru? Give your reasons, 

5. Find out what you can about Raleigh's subsequent imprisonment, 

voyage to South America, and death. 

6. Find on maps in your geography Newfoundland, Albemarle Sound, 

Roanoke Island. 



CHAPTER XLIII 
THE RISE OF CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT 

Points to Be Noted 

Meaning of Constitutional Government; meaning of Democracy; im- 
portance of these two movements; both strong in England. 

Magna Carta and the rise of Parliament were early steps in Consti- 
tutional Government ; disputes between Parliament and the crown 
under Queen Elizabeth. 

The Puritan Revolution; dates; the Civil "War; Charles I defeated 
and executed; rule of Oliver Cromwell; monarchy restored under 
Charles II. 

The Glorious Revolution drives James II from England; date; William 
III approves the Bill of Rights; its provisions. 

The Puritan Revolution and the Glorious Revolution establish Consti- 
tutional Government in England. 

Many great events fill the history of Europe since the 
stirring days of "good Queen Bess." In the remaining chap- 
ters of this book we can deal with but a few of them, and 
these only in the barest outline. We will trace the rise 
of what we call Constitutional Government and of Democ- 
racy, the two most important steps taken by men since the 
discovery of America and the freeing of their minds from 
the bondage of the Middle Ages. Then we shall see how, 
in the year 1914, the world was suddenly plunged into the 
greatest war that it has ever seen, between the countries 
which represented Constitutional Government and Democ- 
racy, and those which stood for the opposite principles of 
Arbitrary Government and Autocracy. 

402. Meaning of Constitutional Government and Democracy. 
Constitutional government means a government in which 
the king or other ruler is obliged to heed the will of his 
people, as expressed in their laws and constitution, instead 

339 



340 OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 

of ruling arbitrarily according to his own wishes. It means 
that the king is under the law and not above the law. Two 
great steps in constitutional government had already been 
taken in England. One was taken when the barons forced 
King John to grant Magna Carta. The other was when 
Parliament was established as the only body with power to 
levy new taxes or to make new laws for the kingdom. 

Democracy is also a word which we must define. It 
means the rule of the people as a whole, instead of the rule 
of the nobles alone or of some other favored class. By the 
rise of democracy we mean principally those events which 
helped to do away with feudalism and serfdom, and thus 
raised the common people to a more important place in 
the government. 

403. Movements in England. Both of these movements 
were strong in England. That country had never lost the 
practice of calling Parliament together, from time to time, 
to assist in passing laws and in carrying on the work of 
government. Disputes, however, arose as to just what 
rights Parliament should have in the government. Prac- 
tically everywhere else parliaments had been done away 
with by the kings, and even in England the strong rulers 
who preceded Elizabeth paid little attention to the wishes 
of Parliament. Elizabeth herself, in promising to respect 
the rights of Parliament, had said that the right of free 
speech consisted "not in every man uttering whatsoever 
came into his head, but in Yea and Nay." This was as much 
as to say that they should be free to vote Yes and No on 
measures proposed by the government, but that the mem- 
bers should not freely debate these measures or introduce 
measures of their own. There were also quarrels over re- 
ligion, owing to the fact that the "Puritans" in Parliament 
wanted to carry the reformation in the Church further than 
either the queen or her advisers would agree. 



RISE OF CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT 341 



404. The Puritan Revolution (1642-1660). Under Eliza- 
beth's immediate successor, King James I, these disputes 
continually became more bitter, until they grew into what 
is called the Puritan Revolution. In 1642, in the time of 
James' son, Charles I, they led to 
a civil war in which the followers 
of the king, who were called 
Royalists, or Cavaliers, fought 
against the Puritans and support- 
ers of Parliament. 

In the end. King Charles and 
his party were defeated in the war. 
This was largely due to the mili- 
tary genius displayed by a plain 
country gentleman named Oliver 
Cromwell, who became the chief 
commander of Parliament's forces. 
When King Charles attempted tu 
renew the war, after having once 
surrendered, the stern Puritan sol- 
diers brought him to trial. He 
was condemned as "a tyrant, trai- 
tor, and public enemy," and was 
beheaded before his palace of 
Whitehall, on January 30, 1649. 
Then for the next eleven years, 
from 1649 to 1660, England was 
ruled without a king, — first as a "commonwealth" or re- 
public, and then by Oliver Cromwell, the head of the Puri- 
tan army, who bore the title of "Protector." 

405. The Glorious Revolution of 1688. After Cromwell's 
death, the son of Charles I was restored to the throne as King 
Charles II. He and his brother James II, who succeeded 
him, seemed to forget entirely the lessons taught by the 




CHARLES I 



342 



OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 



Puritan Revolution. They could not get along without 
Parliament, as Charles I had tried to do for a time; never- 
theless they attempted to set their wills and desires above 
the will of Parliament. 

The result was that, in 1688, a new revolution broke out 
in England. It has been said of King James II that, "with 
incredible folly, he had succeeded in alienating not merely 
the classes which had fought against his father, but also 

those which fought for 
him." James II was 
speedily driven from his 
kingdom, and a new ruler, 
William III, was placed 
on the throne. Parlia- 
ment then passed, and 
the new king approved, 
a Bill of Rights which 
forever made unlawful 
the abuses which Charles 
II and James II had 
practiced. Many of the 
provisions of this Bill of 
Rights were taken over 
into our State constitu- 
tions and into the consti- 
tution of the United 
States, when we proceed- 
ed, a hundred years later, to form independent governments. 
406. Constitutional Government Established. This "Glori- 
ous Revolution" of 1688, as it was called, together with the 
Puritan Revolution which preceded it, made it clear that 
the English Parliament was above the king. Thenceforth 
the kings of England owed their thrones to the action of Par- 
liament, the lower house of which is elected by the people. 




OLIVER CROMWELL 



RISE OF CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT 343 




344 OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 

Many questions of detail remained to be settled. The 
part which the king personally played in the government 
continued for some time to be larger than it is today. The 
ministers, in fact as well as in name, were still the king's 
ministers, and not the ministers of Parliament; and they 
could be dismissed by him when he chose. It was some 
time before they became united into a Cabinet, as they are 
today, with a prime minister at their head ; and it was long 
before it was admitted that it was a Cabinet, with the ap- 
proval of Parliament, which really exercises all the impor- 
tant powers of government. For more than a hundred years 
after the Glorious Revolution, moreover, the number of 
persons who could vote for members of Parliament was very 
small compared to the number at the present time, when 
all the men and mo^t of the women in Great Britain have 
the right to vote. 

Nevertheless, with the Glorious Revolution the practice 
of constitutional government was firmly established in 
England. And from that land it spread until it was adopted 
in the whole of Western Europe, and in the new worlds of 
America, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Wliat is the opposite of Constitutional Government ? Of Democracy ? 

2. Are there now any absohite monarchies left in the world? 

3. Why did Constitutional Government develop in England before it 

did in other countries'? 

4. Find out what you can about Charles I. Was he a good man ? Was 

he a good king? Give your reasons. 

5. Did Cromwell do right in having Charles I put to death ? Give your 

reasons. 

6. The Bill of Rights declares that "excessive bail ought not to be re- 

quired, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual 
punishments inflicted"; and that freedom of speech in Parlia- 
ment, and trial by jury shall be preserved. In what part of the 
Constitution of the United States are there provisions similar 
to these? 



CHAPTER XLIV 

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND THE RISE OF 
DEMOCRACY 

Points to Be Noted 

The part played by France in the rise of Democracy. 

Causes of the French Revohition ; date ; the Estates General ; fall of the 
Bastille; Declaration of the Rights of Man; the Reign of Terror. 

Napoleon Bonaparte masters France and restores order; retains many 
democratic reforms ; his attempt to extend his empire over all 
Western Europe defeated at Waterloo; date; his exile and death. 

England was the land which contributed most to the rise 
of Constitutional Government. It was France, however, 
which played the chief part in wiping out the remnants 
of feudalism and serfdom, and in causing the rise of De- 
mocracy. It was in the French Revolution, which broke 
out in 1789, that Europe made its first important progress 
in this direction. 

407. Misgovemment in Prance. Until 1789, France was 
ruled by a line of kings who prided themselves on having 
"absolute" or unlimited power. Louis XIV, who died in 
1715 after a reign which lasted seventy-two years, is an ex- 
ample of these rulers. He believed in the "divine right" 
of kings, — that is, that they are appointed by God to rule 
on earth, and that to question their commands is sin. His 
idea of his position in the state is summed up in the words, 
"/ am the state." There was no longer in France any as- 
sembly to assist in making the laws, such as had existed in 
the days of Charlemagne or such as was to be found in 
England. The king's will was law. He imprisoned people 
at his pleasure, and kept them in prison as long as he chose. 

345 



346 



OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 



He raised such taxes as he pleased, and he spent the money 
without having to give an account to anybody. The people 
paid for his reckless wars and extravagances, while they 
groaned under the oppressions of evil laws and the remnants 
of feudal customs. 

At last a day of reckoning came. For years the French 
kings had spent more money than reached the treasury in 
taxes. Loans were tried, but in the end foreign bankers 




THE BASTILLE 



refused to lend more money. Then bankruptcy stared the 
French government in the face. 

408. French Revolution Beg:un (1789). In 1789 King Louis 
XVI sought to solve his difficulties by calling together an 
assembly. It was composed of representatives of the nobles, 
clergy, and common people, and was called the Estates Gen- 
eral. With its meeting at Versailles, not far from Paris, 
the French Revolution began. The representatives of the 
common people (called the Third Estate) demanded a long 
list of reforms, and especially the introduction of constitu- 
tional government. Some of the nobles and many of the 



FRENCH REVOLUTION 347 

clergy joined with them in measures to secure these reforms. 
When the king sent a messenger to remove the members of 
the Third Estate from the hall in which they were sitting, 
one of their leaders cried out: 

"Go tell your master that we are here by the will of the 
people, and that we will be removed only at the point of 
the bayonet." 

409. Fall of the Bastille. A short time afterwards (on July 
14, 1789), a mob stormed and captured the old royal prison 
in Paris called the Bastille. When the king, at his palace 
in Versailles, was informed of what had taken place, he 
exclaimed : 

"Why, this is a revolt!" 
"No, sire," was the reply, "it is a revolution." 
To the present day the fall of the Bastille is celebrated 
in France as the birthday of French liberty. 

410. Declaration of the Rights of Man. The Estates Gen- 
eral was soon turned into a National Assembly, which set 
about safeguarding the people's rights. These they em- 
bodied in a document which they called the Declaration of 
the Rights of Man. It included the following points: 

1. All men are born free and equal in their rights. 

2. All citizens have the right to take part in electing rep- 
resentatives to make the laws. 

3. Every person shall be free to speak, write, or print his 
opinions, provided he does not abuse this privilege. 

4. The amount of taxes which a person is called upon to 
pay shall be based on the amount of wealth that he 
possesses. 

These seem like very just and simple principles. Never- 
theless, they had often been violated in the past, not merely 
in France but in every other country in the world. It is for 
this reason that the Declaration of the Rights of Man came 



348 



OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 



to be regarded as the charter of democracy. The equality 
of all men in the eyes of the law is its essence. The three- 
fold watchword of the Revolution soon came to be: Lib- 
erty, Equality, and Fraternity. 

411. Attempts to Overthrow the Revolution. For a time 
Louis XVI and his queen, Marie Antoinette, accepted the 
reforms of the National Assembly and agreed to rule under 
the Constitution which it drew up. Then they listened to 
evil counselors and tried to undo the work of the Revolu- 




THE REIGN OF TERROR 
Royalists are here being carted to the guillotine 

tion, relying upon the armies of the kings of Austria and 
Prussia to aid them. The result was a new series of up- 
risings of the people, in the course of which the government 
passed into the hands of more radical revolutionists, called 
Jacobins. 

412. The Reigfn of Terror. Under the lead of Danton, 
Robespierre, and other energetic and relentless men, France 
was declared a republic (1792), The Prussian and Austrian 
armies were beaten back, and royalist uprisings at home 
were sternly put down. Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette 



FRENCH REVOLUTION 



349 




GUILLOTINE 



were put to death by a beheading machine called a guillo- 
tine. Great numbers of the aristocrats, or members of the 
upper classes, were sent to the same 
doom, often with great brutality 
and on little or no evidence of any 
guilty conduct. Even leaders of 
the Revolution, including Danton 
himself, were executed by the 
bloody men who had seized the 
power, and who would permit no 
rivalry or show of moderation. 
This period is called the Reign of 
Terror, because it was through ter- 
ror that Robespierre and his fol- 
owers ruled. It was a time of dis- 
order and suffering — yes, and dreadful injustice in very 
many cases. But it accomplished its purpose, for it saved 
France from foreign conquest, and the Revolution from be- 
ing overthrown and despotism restored. 

413. Rule of Napoleon Bonaparte. For about a year the 
Terror governed France. Then Robespierre and the remain- 
ing Terrorists fell, and power gradually passed into the 
hands of Napoleon Bonaparte, the most successful general 
produced by the Revolution. 

The rise of Napoleon Bonaparte, from his lowly boyhood 
in the island of Corsica to the mastery of most of Europe, is 
one of the greatest romances of history. He was wise enough 
to preserve most of the democratic reforms of the Revolu- 
tion, and to permit the people to go through the form of 
elections. Even when he took the title "Napoleon the 
First, Emperor of the French," he based his action on the 
will of the people, as expressed in an election or "plebiscite." 
He was one of the greatest military geniuses that the world 
ever produced. The scores of victories which he won over 



350 



OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 



Austria, Prussia, and the other powers of Europe gratified 
the French people, and made it easier for them to forget 
their lost liberties. 

414. His Downfall at Waterloo (1815). So for sixteen years 
Napoleon maintained himself at the head of France. But 
his ambition was never satisfied, and he dreamed of an 
empire such as Charlemagne had ruled over, which should 
embrace all of Western Europe. The greater part of Europe 




NAPOLEON AT WATERLOO 

at last united in arms against him. In the beginning the 
peoples of the different countries had sympathized with 
Napoleon against their own governments, because he spread 
abroad the democratic reforms of the French Revolution. 
But when they saw that he had become a military con- 
queror, with no real care for the people of his own country 
or any other, a wave of patriotism arose which overwhelmed 
him. 

At Waterloo, not far from Brussels, in Belgium, Napoleon 
was decisively defeated by the combined British, Prussians, 



FRENCH REVOLUTION 351 

and Belgians, and his armies were destroyed. He sought 
refuge on board a British man-of-war, and was carried into 
captivity on the island of St. Helena, in the South Atlantic 
ocean. There he died six years later, an example of the ruin 
to which the greatest talents can come when colossal ambi- 
tion unites with colossal selfishness. 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. Tell in your own words wliat Demoeraey is. "What connection is there 

between it and t!ie rule "of the people, for the people, by the 
people" of which Lincoln speaks in the Gettysburg address? 

2. How did the meeting of the Estates General in 1789 help to produce 

democracy in France? How did the fall of the Bastille? 

3. Find out what you can about Robespierre. 

4. What justification was there for the Reign of Terror? 

5. Which deserves most sympathy for his fate, Louis XVI of France or 

Charles I of England? Why? 

6. Find out what you can about the boyhood of Napoleon Bonaparte. 

To what qualities did he owe his success? His fall? 

7. Read the account of the Battle of Waterloo in Victor Hugo's Les 

Miserables. 



CHAPTER XLV 
WORLD PROGRESS AND THE GREAT WAR 

Points to Be Noted 
The Restoration in Europe puts down revolution and democracy for 

forty years. 
New inventions aid democracy; the most important of these arose in 

England, between 1750 and 1825. 
Constitutional Government and Democracy spread in Western Europe; 

Arbitrary Government and Autocracy continue in Central and 

Eastern Europe; confliet inevitable. 
The Great War (1914-1919) : Germany and Austria-Hungaiy arrayed 

against France, Great Britain, Russia, Belgium, Italy, the United 

States, and many other countries. Victory of the Allies ; ''the world 

made safe for democracy." 

In the hundred years which lie between the overthrow of 
Napoleon Bonaparte and the beginning of the Great War, 
in 1914, the world made greater progress than in any pre- 
ceding century. This was true alike in the fields of science 
and discovery, in free government, and in improved living 
conditions. But the progress was not uniform in all coun- 
tries, nor was it without its ups and downs. 

415. The Restoration in Europe. With the downfall of 
Napoleon the old monarchy was restored in France. Every- 
where the kings and princes who had been dethroned in the 
course of his wars crept back to their thrones. Of the royal 
family in France it was said that they had ''learned nothing 
and forgotten nothing" as a result of the years of revolution 
which had passed over them. This was the attitude of most 
of the rulers of Europe in the reaction which now followed. 
It was impossible for them to restore things completely to 
the situation in which they were before the Revolution. 
In France no attempt was made to restore the abuses of 

352 



WORLD PROGRESS 



353 



the time of Louis XIV, and even a sort of constitution was 
granted by the king, though the right of voting was con- 
fined to a very few of the rich landowners. But for the next 
forty years the rulers on the continent of Europe were 
chiefly concerned with upholding the division of territory 
which they had made after Napoleon's downfall, and with 
keeping watch lest any new revolution arise to spread fur- 
ther the dangerous seeds of democracy. 

416. Things Which Favored Liberty. In vain was all 
their vigilance! Before the eyes of their peoples there 
was always the example, across the Atlantic, of the new 
republic of the United States. Parliamentary government 
in England and recollections of the Declaration of the 
Rights of Man also helped to keep alive traditions of 
political liberty. And year by year there filtered in, espe- 
cially from England, a number of new inventions in manu- 
facturing which powerfully aided democracy. 

417. The Old Industrial System. In spite of the invention 
of the magnetic com- 
pass and the telescope, 
of gunpowder and the 
printing press, there 
had been little change, 
for many centuries, ii>< 
the ways in which men 
did their daily work. 
The hand tools and sim- 
ple machines which 
were in use at the be- 
ginning of the eight- 
eenth century were lit- 
tle different from those used in the days of ancient Greece 
and Rome, more than two thousand years before. Yarn 
was still spun with the distaff and spindle, or with the re- 




HAND SPINNING WHEEL 



354 OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 

cently invented spinning wheel. Cloth was still woven on 
hand looms, which looked very much like those pictured on 
the ancient Egyptian monuments. There were no great 
mills or factories, such as we have today. There were no 
steam engines and no railways; none of the marvels of 
electricity, and none of the vast and complicated machines 
which now enable a few men to do in a day with ease, what 
formerly took years and the toil of hundreds of laborers. 

418. Inventions Which Aided Democracy. The change 
which was to usher in the use of machinery and make a new^ 
and more democratic age began in England, about 1750. 



A SPINNING FACTORY 

First, machinery for spinning was invented — by three men 
named Hargreaves, Arkwright, and Crompton. Then Ed- 
mund Cartwright invented a power-loom, which increased 
the amount of cloth that could be woven as much as the 
earlier inventions had increased the quantity of yarn spun. 
To supply power to run the new machinery, James Watt 
developed the steam engine. At the same time improve- 
ments in mining and iron-working gave the iron needed to 




WORLD PROGRESS 355 

make the new machinery and engines. As a result, great 
factories sprang up in the iron and coal districts of Eng- 
land, and almost every day brought forth new inventions 
to make their work more efficient. And finally the steam- 
boat (in 1807) and the locomotive engine and railway 
(about 1825) were added to the growing list of inventions, 
giving improved means of getting goods to market and of 
helping on travel and the exchange of ideas. 

Some hardships for the working classes followed as a 
result of this introduction of machinery, and many evils 
arose or continued which 
we have not yet succeeded 
entirely in curing. But on 
the whole the lot of the 
common people was im- 
proved. Better food, bet- 
ter clothes, and better hous- THE FIRST LOCOMOTIVE^ 
ing became their lot. Best of all, they became better edu- 
cated, and so were able to read books and newspapers which 
carried broadcast the new ideas of democracy and freedom. 

419. Democracy in Western Europe. In England the grow- 
ing power of the working classes gradually led to a widen- 
ing of the right to vote, so that today that right is possessed 
by practically every man and most women. In spite of the 
fact that Great Britain still keeps its king, the government 
there is quite as democratic as our own. And with the ma- 
chines and inventions, which spread abroad from England, 
there spread also the ideas and the practices of democracy. 
France in the end cast out her kings, and under the influence 
of her Declaration of the Rights of Man and the new age 
of machinery has become one of the greatest strongholds 
of democracy. Italy in the year 1870 was at last united 
under a single government ; and although it keeps the forms 
of a monarchy, the country is thoroughly democratic. So, 



356 



OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 




THE GEEAT WAE 357 

almost everywhere in Western Europe, there spread the 
spirit of democracy and the rule of the people. 

420. Autocracy Ruled Central Europe. In Central and 
Eastern Europe, however. Constitutional Government and 
Democracy made less progress. The ruling principles there 
continued to be Arbitrary Government and Autocracy, sup- 
ported by vast and expensive armies. The German Empire, 
formed by Bismarck in 1871, through a policy of "blood and 
iron," was ruled by an emperor who still claimed to be re- 
sponsible to God alone, and who delighted in threats of war 
and plans of far-reaching conquests. In Austria-Hungary 
a number of sturdy little nations — the Czechs in Bohemia 
and the Jugo-Slavs in the south — were ruled against their 
will by the German Austrians and the haughty Hungarian 
landowners. The small states of the Balkan peninsula, 
formed out of fragments of the decaying Turkish Empire, 
were threatened by the plans of Germany and Austria for 
building a vast empire, which should stretch across south- 
eastern Europe and into western Asia. Giant Russia, al- 
though joined in alliance with France and Great Britain, 
and filled with revolution and unrest, was ruled by an auto- 
crat called the czar, whose governing principles linked him 
with Germany. 

421. Beginning of the Great War (1914). President Lin- 
coln, on the eve of our Civil War, had said that a country 
could not continue to be "half slave and half free," and 
that it must inevitably become all one or all the other. So 
it was with democracy in the world — the autocratic gov- 
ernments must either destroy it, or it would destroy them. 

In 1914, with the attempt of Austria and Germany to 
conquer the little kingdom of Serbia, the great struggle 
began. France, England, Russia, Belgium, Italy, and many 
other countries were forced into war to resist the ambitious 
plans of the Central Powers. Russia, in 1917, overthrew its 



358 



OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 




THE GEEAT WAE 359 

czar and proclaimed a republic, and soon after made a 
separate peace. The United States, in that same year, 
entered the war, because German submarines were sinking 
our ships and drowning American men, women, and chil- 
dren. It then became perfectly clear that the underlying 
purpose of the war was, in President Wilson's words, to 
"make the world safe for democracy." 

422. The World Made Safe for Democracy. In the end 
Germany and Austria, with their allies, Turkey and Bul- 
garia, were defeated. They had given years to secret prep- 
arations for war, had spent billions of dollars and millions 
of soldiers' lives, and waged war with a cruelty such as had 
seldom before been seen. But they could not stand against 
a whole world battling for freedom and right. The heroism 
of France and of martyred Belgium, the might of the British 
navy and the power of the Allied armies, and the self-sacri- 
fice and devotion of all the Allied peoples made inevitable 
the defeat of this attack upon the world's liberties. A 
decisive factor was the American army in France under 
General Pershing, which won imperishable glory at Belleau 
Wood, Chateau-Thierry, and in the battles of the Argonne 
Forest. First Bulgaria and Turkey sought peace, then 
Austria. Finally the Germans, also, in November, 1918, 
were forced to sign the armistice which put an end to active 
fighting, and forever destroyed the menace of the German 
Empire. 

The wreck and ruin caused by the war were incalculable. 
In Russia and the defeated countries, where the practices of 
democratic self-government were unfamiliar, anarchy and 
disorder were long continued. Even in the Allied countries 
the problems of reconstruction were many and difficult. 
But Constitutional Government and Democracy were saved 
for the world. And in the new League of Nations, which 
was set up by the Peace Conference at Paris, the attempt 



360 



OLD WOELD BACKGEOUND 




THE GEEAT WAR 361 

was made to realize at last the golden age dreamed of by 
the poet Tennyson, when — 

"The war-drum throbbed no longer, and the battle-flags were furled 
In the Parliament of Man, the Federation of the World." 

Topics for Review and Search 

1. In view of the Restoration which followed the downfall of Napoleon, 

would you say that the French Revolution was a success or a 
failure? Give your reasons. 

2. Make a list of some of the important inventions and discoveries of 

the last 150 years. 

3. Look up the story of James Watt and the tea kettle. 

4. Find a picture of an early locomotive and train of ears. How did 

they differ from the locomotives and cars of today? 

5. What two countries of Europe that were weak and disunited before 

1870 were strong and united after 1871? 

6. In what respects was the government of Germany under the Emperor 

William II like that of France under Louis XIV? 

7. Make a list of the countries which fought on the side of Democracy 

and Freedom in the Great War, and of tliose which fought on 
the other side. 

8. Make a list of the things which the United States did to help win the 

war. In what ways did children help? 

9. How did the war help to "make the world safe for democracy"? 



CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINE 



Some names and events are inserted for the sake of completeness which 
are not mentioned in the text, 

B.C. 

2900. Great Pyramids built in Egypt. 

2100. Hammurabi rules over all Babylonia and issues code of laws. 

2000-1500. Earliest European civilization flourished in Crete and around 

the shores of the Aegean Sea. 
1400-1200. Hebrews settle in Palestine. 
606. Assyrian Empire overthrown; followed by rise of Persian Empire 

under Cyrus the Great (died 529 B.C.). 



GEEECE EOME 

1193-1184. Trojan War (legendary 753. Rome founded 

dates). 
500-479. Greek Wars with Persia. 
Battle of Marathon (490); bat- 
tles of Thermopylae and Salamis 
(480). 

444-429. Pericles rules Athens. 
431-404. Peloponnesian War be- 
tween Athens and Sparta. 
399. Socrates put to death. 
338. Greece conquered by Philip of 

Macedonia. 
336-323. Eeign of Alexander the 

Great. Expedition against Persia 

(334); battle of Granicus (334); 

battle of Issus (333); founding 

of Alexandria (333); battle of 

Arbela (331); expedition to India 

(327); death of Alexander (323). 

264-241. First war between Bome and Carthage. Eome gains Sicily and 
(later) Sardinia. 

218-201. Second war with Carthage. Hannibal marches from Spain into 
Italy (218); he defeats the Eomans in several battles, including the 
battle of Cannae (216) ; Scipio expels the Carthaginians from Spain, 
and carries the war into Africa (204); Hannibal recalled to Carthage 
(203); Scipio defeats Hannibal at Zama (202) and ends the war (201). 

363 



753. Rome founded (legendary 
date). 

509. The kings driven out and a 
republic set up. 

509-345. Frequent wars with neigh- 
boring peoples. 

494. Secession of the plebeians. 
Beginning of the struggle be- 
tween classes in Bome. 

390. Bome captured by the Gauls. 

367. Plebeians admitted to the con- 
sulship. Thereafter all distinc- 
tions between patricians and 
plebeians gradually wiped out. 

343-266, Wars for the conquest of 
Italy. Italy conquered up to the 
valley of the Eiver Po. 



364 OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 

183. Death of Hannibal. 

149-146. Third War with Carthage. Carthage captured and destroyed. 

146. Macedonia (with Greece) becomes a Eoman province. 

133. Asia Minor becomes a Eoman province. 

133-121. Attempts of the Gracchi brothers to improve the lot of the poor 

freemen of Eome; Tiberius Gracchus killed by the richer citizens 

(133); Caius Gracchus slain (121). 
88-82. Civil war between Marius, supported by the poorer citizens, and 

Sulla, supported by the richer citizens. Triumph of the richer citizens. 
58-51. Conquest of Gaul by Julius Caesar; victory over Vercingetorix 

(52). 
55-54. Caesar's invasions of Britain. 
49-45. Civil war between Caesar and Pompey, and their supporters. 

Caesar makes himself sole ruler of Bome. 
44. Caesar murdered by Brutus and other conspirators. 
31 B.C.-14 A.D. Boman Empire established. Eule of Augustus as 

Emperor. 

A.D. 

64. Fire at Eome; persecution of the Christians by the Emperor Nero. 

79. Pompeii destroyed by an eruption of Mt. Vesuvius. 

312. The Emperor Constantine becomes the protector of the Christians. 

323-337. Constantine sole ruler. The Empire becomes Christian. Con- 
stantinople founded as the capital of the Empire (330). 

375. The Goths cross the Danube and enter the Empire; battle of 
Adrianople (378). 

395. Death of the Emperor Theodosius; separation of the Empire into 
an Eastern half and a Western half. 

410. Sack of Bome by the Goths under Alaric; death of Alarje; his 
followers settle in Spain. 

449. Coming of the English to Britain. 

476. End of the Eoman Empire in the West. 

481-511. Clovis founds the Prankish kingdom in Gaul. 

597. Augustine goes to Britain to convert the English; the King of Kent 
converted; gradual conversion of the rest of England. 

622. Mohammed's flight from Mecca (the "Hegira"); founding of the 
Mohammedan religion; death of Mohammed (632), 

711. The Goths in Spain conquered by Mohammendans from Africa. 

732. The Mohammedans defeated by the Franks at Tours, in southern 
France. 

800. Charlemagne, King of the Franks, crowned Emperor by the Pope at 
Eome. Prankish power greatly extended by Charlemagne (768-814). 
828. England united under a single king (Egbert of Wessex). 



CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINE 365 

871-901. Eeign of King Alfred in England; his treaty witli the Danes. 

911. The king of France grants the duchy of Normandy to Eolf the 
Northman. 

1000. Discovery of North America by the Northman, Leif the Lucky. 

1016-1035. Eule of the Danish King Canute over England. 

1042-1066. Edward the Confessor, king of England. 

1066. Norman Conquest of England. William, duke of Normandy, 
overthrows Harold, the English king, in the battle of Hastings. 

1095. Council of Clermont. Pope Urban II calls the First Crusade. 

1096-1099. First Crusade. Capture of Jerusalem and founding of the 
Kingdom of Jerusalem. 

1147-1149. Second Crusade. 

1187. Capture of Jerusalem by Saladin, the Mohammedan ruler. 

1189-1192. Third Crusade. The Emperor Frederick Barbarossa drowned 
(1190). Richard the Lion-Hearted takes Acre (1191). 

1202-1204. Fourth Crusade, directed by the Venetians against Constanti- 
nople. A Latin Empire established in the East (overthrown by the 
Greeks in 1261). 

1199-1214. Eeign of King John of England. Loss of Normandy (1204) ; 
he becomes the vassal of the Pope (1213); he is forced to grant the 
Great Charter (1215). 

1213. Knights of the shire added to the Great Council in England; 
beginning of Parliament. 

1265. Simon of Montfort adds borough representatives to Parliament. 

1295. Model Parliament of King Edward L 

1299. Marco Polo describes his travels. 

1337-1453. Hundred Years' War between England and France. England 
loses all her possessions in France except Calais. 

1380. Victory of Venice over Genoa; Venice becomes the leading com- 
mercial city. 

1450. Invention of printing by John Gutenberg. 

1453. Capture of Constantinople by the Turks. End of the Eastern 
Eoman Empire. 

1455-1485. Wars of the Eoses in England. 



NEW WOELD EVENTS OLD WOELD EVENTS 
1486. Diaz discovers the Cape of 

Good Hope. 

1492, Oct. 12. Columbus discovers 1494. France attempts to conquer 

America. Italy. Beginning of the wars be- 

1497. John Cabot discovers New- tween France and Spain over 

foundland, etc. Italy. 



366 



OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 



NEW "WORLD EVENTS 
1498. Vasco da Gama reaches 

India. 
1513. Balboa discovers the Pacific 

Ocean. 
1513. Ponce de Leon discovers 

Florida. 
1519-1521, Voyage of Magellan. 
1519-1521. Cortez conquers Mexico. 
1524. Explorations of Verrazano. 
1531-1532. Pizarro conquers Peru. 
1534-1543. Cartier's explorations. 
1540-1542. Explorations of Coro- 

nado in the Southwest. 

1542. De Soto discovers the Missis- 
sippi River. 

1577-1580. Voyage of Sir Francis 
Drake around the world. 

1585. Raleigh's first colony on 
Roanoke Island. 

1587. Raleigh's second colony on 
Roanoke Island (the "Lost Col- 
ony"). 

1607. Founding of the Jamestovm 
Colony in Virginia, 

1608. Quebec founded by Cham- 
plain. 

1613. Dutch make first settlement 
on Manhattan (New York). 

1620. Founding of the Plymouth 
colony in Massachusetts. 

1630. Founding of Boston Colony. 

1634. Maryland settled by Lord 
Baltimore. 



OLD WORLD EVENTS 

1515-1547. Reign of Francis I, 
king of France. 

1517. Reformation begun in Ger- 
many (Martin-Luther). 

1519-1556. Emperor Charles V 
rules Spain, Germany, the Neth- 
erlands, parts of Italy and of 
America. 

1534. Henry VIII separates Eng- 
land from the Catholic Church. 

1558-1603. Reign of Queen Eliza- 
beth of England. 

1562-1598. Religious Wars in 
France. 

1568-1648. Revolt of the Nether- 
lands against Spain. Capture of 
Brille by the "Sea Beggars" 
(1572); siege of Leyden (1574); 
sack of Antwerp by Spanish 
troops (1576) ; Union of Utrecht 
formed by the seven northern 
(Dutch) provinces (1579); the 
seven provinces issue a declara- 
tion of independence (1581); 
murder of William of Orange 
(1584); truce made between the 
Dutch Netherlands and Spain 
(1609); Spain recognizes the in- 
dependence of the Dutch Nether- 
lands (1648). 

1587. Execution of Mary, queen of 
Scots. 

1588. Destruction of the Spanish 
Armada by England. 

1603-1625. James I (son of Mary, 
queen of Scots) king of England 
and Scotland. 

1618-1648. Great Religious War 
in Germany ("Thirty Years' 
War"). 

1642-1660. Puritan Revolution In 
England. Charles I executed 
(1649); Oliver Cromwell rules 
as Protector (1653-1658). 



CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINE 



367 



NEW WOELD EVENTS 

1680. Cliaxleston, South Carolina, 
founded. 

1682. William Penn settled Penn- 
sylvania. 

1682. La Salle descended the Mis- 
sissippi Eiver. 



1732. Georgia settled. 



1754-1763. French and Indian War 

in America. 



1775-1783. American Revolutionary 

War separates the thirteen col- 
onies from Great Britain. 



1789. United States Constitution 
goes into effect with Washington 
as first President. 

1803. Louisiana Territory pur- 
chased from Emperor Napoleon. 



1812-1815. War of 1812 with Great 
Britain. 



OLD WOELD EVENTS 

1688. The Glorious Revolution in 
England. James II deposed be- 
cause of his misgovernment. 
Bill of Eights adopted (1689). 

1714-1760. Cabinet government be- 
gun in England with a prime 
minister at the head. Continued 
growth of constitutional govern- 
ment. 

1740-1786. Frederick the Great 
rules Prussia as an absolute 
king. Unscrupulous wars of 
conquest; Kingdom of Poland 
divided up. 

1751-1763. British defeat the 
French in a world-wide struggle 
which brought them India, Can- 
ada, and naval supremacy. This 
was the real founding of the 
British Empire. 

1765-1784. A series of English in- 
ventions in spinning and weav- 
ing and in the steam engine in- 
troduce the Industrial Revolu- 
tion. Democracy stimulated. 

1789-1795. The great French Rev- 
olution. Spread of the doctrines 
of the Eights of Man. 

1796-1815. Wars of Napoleon Bon- 
aparte (Emperor of the French, 
1804-1815). Battle of Waterloo, 
1815. 

1815. Congress of Vienna settles 
European questions in the inter- 
ests of the rulers, not of the 
people. Period of reaction fol- 
lows. 

1825. First railway line opened, in 
England. 

1837-1901. Queen Victoria reigns 
in Great Britain. Constitutional 
government and the rule of the 
people strengthened. 



368 



OLD WORLD BACKGROUND 



NEW WOELD EVENTS 

1846-1848. Mexican War gains Cal- 
ifornia, New Mexico, etc. 



1861-1865. American Civil War 
ends slavery. President Lincoln 
assassinated. 



1898. Spanish-American War wins 
Philippines and Porto Eico. 



1912. Wilson elected President. 



1915. Panama Canal opened. 

1916. Ee-election of President Wil- 
son. 



1917, April 7. United States enters 
the war against Germany. 



OLD WOELD EVENTS 

1848-1849. Uprisings of the people 
in France, Italy, Austria, and 
Germany end the period of re- 
action. An age of national 
rivalries follows. 

1851-1870. Napoleon III rules as 
Emperor of the French. 

1859-1870. Italy united into a sin- 
gle kingdom (work of Cavour 
and Garibaldi). 

1861. Serfs set free in Russia. 

1870-1871. Prussia aided by the 
other German states brings on 
war with France. Germany 
united into an Empire (work of 
Bismarck). Defeated France 
becomes a republic. 

1882. Triple Alliance formed by 
Germany, Austria, and Italy 
against France. 

1892. Defensive alliance formed by 
France and Eussia. This be- 
comes the Triple Entente (un- 
derstanding) by the addition of 
Great Britain in 1907. 

1904-1905. Eussia defeated by 
Japan in Busso-Japanese War. 

Eeforms begun in Eussia. 

1911. China becomes a republic. 

1912-1913. Turkey defeated in a 
war with the Balkan States 
(Serbia, Greece, Bulgaria, and 
Montenegro). 

1914. Great World War Begun. 
Germany, Austria, Turkey, and 
Bulgaria take arms against Ser- 
bia, Belgium, Eussia, France, 
and Great Britain. Italy joins 
the latter alliance in 1915. 

1917. Eevolutionists in Eussia de- 
pose the Czar, set up a radical 
republic, and make peace with 
Germany. 



CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINE 



369 



NEW WOKLD EVENTS 
1918, July. American troops at 
Chateau-Thierry help defeat and 
throw back the Germans. 



OLD WORLD EVENTS 

1918, November 11. Germany, de- 
serted by her allies, is forced to 
sign a hard armistice. 

1919, May 7. Peace terms present- 
ed to Germany which destroy her 
military power and establish a 
League of Nations to end wars. 



INDEX 

Diacritical Marks: a as in late; a as in fat; a as in /or; a as in care^; 
a as in ask; e as in me; 6 as in met; e as in maker; i as in ice; I as in 
tin; 6 as in note; 6 as in not; 6 as in for. 



Achilles (a-kil'lez), 21-23 
Accolade (ak'5-lad'), 91 
Acre (a'ker), siege of, 244, 245 
Acropolis (a-krop'o-lis), of Athens, 

27, 28, 40, 41, 43 
Adrianople (ad'ri-an-o'p'l), battle 

of, 123 
Aegean (e-je'an) Sea, 10, 21 
Aegean civilization, 10 
Aequians (§-quI'ans), 63, 65 
Africa, coast explored, 262, 263 
Agamemnon ( ag-a-mem'non ) , King, 

21, 22 
Agriculture, medieval, 193-198 
Alaric (aPar-ik), 123, 127 
Alesia (a-le'shi-a), 86, 87 
Alexander the Great, 47-52, 54 
Alexandria, 54, 55 
Alfred, King, 151-160 
Alva, Duke of, 316-318 
America, discovered, by Northmen, 

152, 260; by Columbus, 273; nam- 
ing of, 278, 279 
American army, in France, 359 
Amsterdam, rise of, 319, 320 
Angles, 142, 143, 145, 147 
Antioch (an'ti-6k), 236-238 
Antwerp, 301, 315, 318 
Aphrodite (af'ro-di'te) [Venus], 

17, 18, 21 
Apollo, 16, 17, 33 
Aqueducts, Roman, 75, 77 
Arabic numerals, 249 
Arabs, conquests of, 228, 229 
Argonne ( ar-gon' ) , Forest, battle of, 

359 
Ariovistus (a-ri-o-vis'tns) , 88 
Aristotle (ar'is-tot'l), 266 
Arkwright, Richard, 355 



Armada (ar-ma'da), the Great, 

321-329 
Armistice, signed, 359 
Arthur, King, 145, 306 
Arthur, nephew of King John, 168 
Athelney (ath'el-ni), 154 
Athena (a-the'-na) [Minerva], 17, 

22, 23, 42, 43 
Athens, 25, 27, 28; in Persian wars, 

29-32, 33, 35-38; under Pericles, 

39-43 ; puts Socrates to death, 46 ; 

war with Sparta, 47 
Augustine, missionary, 148, 149 
Augustus, Emperor, 93, 94, 104, 116 
Australia, 344 
Austria, 348, 350, 357; defeated in 

World War, 359 
Aztecs, 286-288 

Balboa (bal-b5'a), 279, 280 

Balkan (bal'kan or bol'kan) pe- 
ninsula, 357 

Bayard (bi'ard), 308-310 

Becket, Saint Thomas, 225, 227 

Bede, 158 

"Beggars, The," 318 

Belgium, 357, 359 

Belleau (bel-6'), Wood, 359 

Benedict, Saint, 216, 219, 220, 222, 
223 

Bernard, Saint, 224 

Bill of Rights, 342 

Bismarck, 357 

Blondel (blon-deP), 246 

Bojador (bo-ha'a-dor'), Cape, 262 

Bonaparte, Napoleon, 349 

Books, Roman, 101; medieval, 220, 
221; printed, 261 

Brazil, 294 



371 



372 



INDEX 



Britain, Caesar's invasion of, 89; 

Roman conquest of, 88, 89, -94; 

English conquest of, 142-146. See 

England 
Brutus, 93 
Bulgaria, 360 

Cabinet, in England, 344 

Cabot, John, 276, 277 

Caesar, Julius, 81-93 

Calicut, 263 

California, discovered, 303; Spanish 

missions in, 291-293 
Calvin, John, 296 
Canada, 311, 312 
Cannae (ciin'ne), battle of, 71 
Cannon, introduction of, 252 
Canterbury (kan'ter-ber-i) , arch- 
bishopric, 148; pilgrimages to, 

225-227 
Canute (ka-nutO, King, 160 
Capitol, Roman, 78, 79 
Carthage, 67; wars with Rome, 68- 

75; destroyed, 74 
Cartier, Jacques (kar-tya', zhak), 

310, 311 
Cartwright, Edmund, 355 
Castles, 180-187; life in, 187-192; 

in Palestine, 240; abandoned, 304 
Catacombs, Roman, 107 
Cathedrals, Gothic, 204, 209, 210, 

214 
Cavaliers, 341 
Central America, discovered, 274, 

278 
Champlain (sham-plan'), 311 
Chariot races, 83 
Charles I, King, 341 
Charles II, King, 341 
Charles V, Emperor, 296, 307, 309, 

316 
Charter, the Great, 169, 173, 179 
Chateau-Thierry ( sha-to'tye-re' ) , 

359 
Chaucer, 227 
Chimneys, 199, 304 
China, 257-259, 311 
Chivalry. See Knighthood 
Christianity, in Roman Empire, 



104-111; accepted by Goths, 121; 
by Franks, 129; by English, 147- 
150 ; by Danes in England, 155 ; 
conversion of Indians to, 287, 
291-293 

Church, organization of, 110^111; 
use of Latin language, 139; in the 
Middle Ages, 213-224; divided by 
the Reformation, 295-297 

Cincinnatus (sin-si-na'tus), 63-66 

Civilization, nature of, 113, 114; 
derived from Asia and Egypt, 
xviii; beginning of, 2, 3, 4; 
Aegean, 10; Greek, 14, 44, 53-56; 
Roman, 55, 56, 75-80, 83, 84, 94- 
103; spi'ead into Gaul, 87; into 
Britain, 89; ancient Teutonic, 
112-119; medieval, 164-166, ISO- 
228; native Mexican, 284, 286; 
spread of European to America, 
viii, XV, xvii, 275, 292, 293 

Clara, Saint, 216 

Clermont, Council of, 231 

Cloister, 218 

Clotilda, Queen, 129 

Clovis, King, 128-130, 213 

Colonization, Greek, 53, 54; begin- 
ning of English, 330-338 

Columbus, Christopher, youth of, 
26.J ; plans westward voyage, 266 ; 
his greatness, 267, 276; mistaken 
idea of the globe, 267, 269; Queen 
Isabella aids, 268, 269; first voy- 
age, 269-273; reception on re- 
turn, 273, 274; later voyages, 
274; death, 274; religious motive 
of, 291 

Comfort, increase of, 304 

Compostella (kom-po-stel'a), pil- 
grimages to, 225 

Commerce, Athenian, 27, 28; of 
Alexandria, 54, 55; of Carthage, 
67 ; medieval, 203 ; increased by 
Crusades, 250; Venetian, 251- 
255; Portuguese, 262-264; Eng- 
lish, 301: Dutch, 314, 315 

Commons, House of, 175, 178, 354 

Communes. See Towns, medieval 

Compass, 260, 270 



I^^DEX 



373 



Conrad III, of Germany, 241 

Constantine, Emperor, 109, 110 

Constantinople, 109, 121, 230, 231; 
Crusaders at, 233, 234, 235; 
taken by Fourth Crusade, 247 : 
Venetians in, 251; influence of, 
254 

Constitutional Government, defini- 
tion of, 339; rise of, 339-344 

Corn, Indian, 333 

Coronado (kur-O-na'do), 289 

Cortes (kor'tez), Hernando, 283- 
288, 290 

Council of Blood, 317 

Crompton, Samuel, 355 

Cromwell. Oliver, 341, 342 

Cross-staff, 270 

Crusades, definition, 228, 232: ori- 
gin of, 231, 232; First, 231-239; 
Second, 241; Tliird, 242-245; 
Fourth, 247 ; later, 247 ; end of, 
247 ; results of, 249-256 

Cuba, discovery of, 273 

Curfew, 210 

Czechs (cheks), 357 

Da Gama. See Gama 

Danelaw, 155, 156, 160 

Danes, in England, 153-156, 157, 
158, 159 

Danton (diin-ton'), 348, 349 

Dare, Virginia, 336 

Darius (da-ri'iis). King, 29, 30, 31 

Delphi (del'fi), 17, 35, 44 

Democracy, defined, 340; rise of, 
345-351, 355 

De Soto, 289, 290 

Diaz (de'iiz), Bartholomew, 262, 
263 

Dominic (dom'i-nik). Saint, 216 

Donjon (dun'jun), of castle, 184 

Drake, Sir Francis, 302, 303, 323, 
325-327, 330, 335 

Dress, Elizabethan display in, 305 

Dutch, revolt of, 314-320: settle- 
ments in America, 320; what we 
learned from them, 320 

East Anglia, 143 



Education, Roman, 100-102; medie- 
val, 221, 222 

Edward I, King, 177 

Edward the Confessor, 160, 161 

Egypt, xvii, 46, 51, 54, 55, 241 

Elizabeth, Queen, 297-300, 303, 305, 
306, 340; aids the Dutch, 321- 
323; war with Philip II, 323-328; 
aids American colonization, 330 ; 
Virginia named for, 333 

Empire, Eastern, 229, 230, 233, 247 

Empire, Western, 120-130 

England, founding of, 142-150; 
seven kingdoms in, 145; govern- 
ment of, 146; conversion of, 148, 
149; becomes single kingdom, 
150; Danes in, 153, 154-156, 158, 
159; under Edward the Con- 
fessor, 160, 161; Harold king of, 
161-163; Norman Conquest, 161- 
164; under King John, 168-171; 
a papal fief, 169; Great Cliarter 
granted, 181; rise of Parliament 
in, 174-179; Richard the Lion- 
Hearted, king of, 240-248; Hun- 
dred Years' War, 295 ; W^ar of the 
Roses, 295; Reformation in, 297; 
under Elizabeth, 294-306; aids 
Netherlands, 319, 327-329; de- 
feats Armada, 321-329; begins to 
colonize America, 328, 329, 330- 
338 ; constitutional government 
in, 340; in Great War, 357 

Ericsson, Leif (lef), 152 

Essex, 145 

Estates General, 346 

Ethelred, King, 154 

Etruscans (e-trus'kanz) , 61 

Europe, geography of, 13; receives 
civilization from Asia, 13; Amer- 
ican civilization comes from, 2; 
restoration in, 352 

Factories, use of, 355 
Fairs, medieval, 211, 212 
Falconry, 188, 189 
Famines, medieval, 199, 200, 333 
Far East, trade with, 251-253; 
travels of Polo family in, 257- 



374 



INDEX 



260; Portuguese attempt to 
reach, 262-264; Vasco da Gama's 
voyage, 263; Columbus attempts 
to reach, 267, 274 

Feudalism, 164-166; in Palestine, 
240 

Fisheries, American, 278, 310, 311 

Florence, 204 

Florida, discovery of, 288 

Forum, Roman, 75, 76, 78 

France, origin of name, 130; under 
Clovis, 128-130; Northmen settle 
Normandy, 151; Normandy re- 
covered, 168; medieval towns in, 
203; \pars with England, 295; in 
the New World, 307-313; ex- 
plores and settles America, 310- 
314; aids Netherlands, 319; in the 
Great War, 355, 357 

Francis, Saint, 216 

Francis I, king of France, 309-310 

Franks, settle in Gaul, 127-130 

"Franks," name given to Crusaders, 
235, 238 

Frederick Barbarossa, 242, 243 

French Revolution, 345-351 

Friars, 216, 292 

Furniture, medieval peasant, 199 ; 
in Elizabethan England, 304 

Galleys, 2, 325, 326 

Gama, Vasco da (ga'ma vas'ko da), 

263, 264 
Games, Olympic, 19, 46; Roman, 

83-85 
Gaul, conquered by Rome, 85-87 ; 

Goths in, 125; Franks settle in, 

127; becomes France, 130 
Genoa (j§n'6-a), 204, 250; rivalry 

with Venice, 255 
Germans, sign armistice, 360 
Germany, under Charles V, 307 ; 

Reformation in, 296; in Great 

War, 358, 360 
Gladiators, 83, 84, 100 
Globe, the earth a, 55, 262, 266, 

267 ; circumnavigations of, 280- 

282, 302, 303 
Glorious Revolution, 341, 342 



Good Hope, Cape of, 263, 281, 303 

Goths, 121; converted, 121; enter 
Roman Empire, 123-124; battle 
of Adrianople, 123; sack Rome, 
124; settle in Gaul and Spain, 
125 ; overthrown by Moors, 125 

Granada (gra-na'da), 268 

Great Council, 172, 174; becomes 
Parliament, 174-177 

Great Lakes, 312 

Great War, 358-361 

Greece, geography of, 12-14; re- 
ligion of, 15-19; war with Troy, 
xvi, 21-24; wars with Persia, 29- 
38; wars between cities of, 47; 
conquered by Macedonia, 47; aids 
Alexander against Persia, 49; cul- 
ture of, 28, 53-56; colonies of, 
29, 53, 54; conquered by Romans, 
57 

Greenland, 151, 152, 260 

Gregory the Great, Pope, 147, 158 

Grenville, Captain, 334, 335 

Guilds, medieval, 209 

Guillotine, 349 

Gunpowder, 252, 260, 308 

Gutenberg (goo'ten-b§rk), John, 
261 

Hall, feudal, 186, 304 
Hades (ha'dez) [Pluto], 17 
Hamilcar Barca (ha-mil'kjir bar'- 

ka), 68 
Hannibal, 68-74 
Hargreaves, James, 355 
Harold, King, 161-163 
Hastings, battle of, 161-163 
Hayti (ha'ti), 273 
Hector, 22, 23 
Helen, 21, 22, 24 
Hellespont, 31, 38 
Hengist, 143 

Henry, the Navigator, 262 
Henry VIII, King, 296, 297, 298 
Hera (he'ra) [Juno], 17, 22 
Holland, 315 

Holy Land. See Palestine 
Homer, 53 
Horatius (ho-ra'shiis) , 61 



INDEX 



375 



Horsa, 143 

Horses, in conquest of Mexico, 285, 
289 

Hospitallers (hos'pi-tal-er). 
Knights, 241 

Houses, Roman, 96-98; ancient Teu- 
tonic, 114; in Elizabethan Eng- 
land, 304 

Howard, Lord, 327 

Hundred Years' War, 295 

Hurling machines, 238 

Huns, 121-123 

Iceland, 153 

Independence, Dutch declaration of, 

318 
India, 260, 262, 263, 264, 267 
Indians, American, 273, 274, 279, 

285-293, 331-337 
Interdict, 169, 213 
Inventions, 353, 355 
Isabella, Queen, 268, 269, 274 
Italy, Greek colonies in, 53, 54, 55; 

geography of, 57-59; conquered 

by Rome,' 67; Goths in, 123-125; 

medieval cities of, 202-204; wars 

over, 307, 308; united, 356; in 

Great War, 358 

Jacobins ( jak'o-binz) , 348 

James I, King, 337, 341 

James II, King, 341 

Jamestown, 338 

Jerusalem, 226, 228, 229, 230, 233, 

238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 245 
Jesuits (jez'u-itz), 13, 292 
John, King, 168-173, 295. 340 
Jugo-Slavs (yu-go-sliivz), 358 
Jupiter. (S'ee Zeus 
Jury trial, 172 
Jutes, 142, 143 

Keep of castle, 183, 184 

Kenilworth, 305, 306 

Kent, 145, 146, 148 

Kings cast out, in France, 355 

Knighthood, training for, 187-190; 

conferring of, 191-192; decline 

of, 308 



Kublai Khan (koo'bla kan), 258, 
259 

Ladrones (la-dronz'), islands, 281 
Lance, the Holy, 238 
Lane, Governor, 334, 335 
Langton, Stephen, 169 
Las Casas (las ka'sjis), 291 
Latitude, determination of, 270 
League of Nations, 361 
Leicester (les'ter). Earl of, 305 
Leonidas (le-on'i-das) , King, 34, 35 
Leyden (iFden), siege of, 318, 319 
Leif, the Lucky. See Ericsson, Leif 
Locomotive engine, 356 
London, under the Romans, 89 ; un- 
der Alfred, 55; causes of great- 
ness, 155, 156; growth of, 301 
Longitude, determination of, 270 
Lords, House of, 175, 178 
Lost Colony, the, 335-337 
Louis VII, King of France, 241 
Louis XIV, King, 345 
Louis XVI, King, 346, 348 
Low Countries. See Netherlands 
Luther, Martin, 296 

Macedonia (ma-se-don'i-ii), con- 
quers Greece, 47 ; conquers Persia, 
49-51; conquered by Romans, 75, 
78, 79 
Magellan (mii-jgl'an), 280-282, 291 
Magna Carta, 340. See also Char- 
ter, the Great 
Marathon, battle of, 30, 31, 38, 41 
Marco Polo (mar'ko po'lo), 258- 

260 
Marie Antoinette, 348 
Martyrs, Christian, 105-107 
Mary, Queen of England, 297-323 
Mary, Queen of Scotland, 298, 299, 

323 
Masques, 305 
Menelaus (men-g-la'iis), King, 21- 

24 
Mercia (mer'shi-a), 146 
Mexico, discovered, 284; conquered 
by Cortes, 283-288; Spanish rule 
in, 291-293 



376 



INDEX 



Milan (mi-lan'), 308, 309 
Military Orders, 240, 241 
Miltiades (mil-ti'a-dez), 30, 38 
jNIinerva. See Athena 
Missions, Spanish, 291-293 
Mississippi River, discovered, 289, 

290 
Model Parliament, 177, 179 
]\Iohammed, 228, 229 
Moliammedans, 228, 229, 238-241, 

245, 249 
Monks, 113, 143, 215-224 
Montezuma (mon-te-zu'mii), 287 
Montfort, Simon of, 177, 179 
Montreal, 311 
Moors, 268, 269 
Myths, nature of, 25 

Napoleon the First. See Bonaparte 

National Assembly, in France, 347 

Navigation, aids to, 270 

Nero, Emperor, 105, 107 

Netherlands, 314-320; under Philip 
II, 316; revolt of, 317-319; gain 
independence, 319; importance of. 
for America, 320 

Newfoundland, 277, 301, 310, 338 

New Spain, 287 

New World, discovery of, 152, 275- 
277 

New Zealand, 344 

Nicea (nl-se'li), 235, 236 

Normandy, 151, 168 

Normans,"^ 151, 160-164, 166. 233 

North America, 277, 278, 280 

Northmen, raids of, 151-157, 158, 
160; discover Iceland and Green- 
land, 152, 153; discover America, 
151, 260. See also Danes 

Northumberland, 146, 149 

Nuns, 215, 216 

Olympia, 19, 41, 42 
Orinoco River, 274 
Ottoman Turks, 260 

Pacific Ocean, 259, 279-282, 302, 

303 
Pageants, Elizabethan, 305, 306 



Palatine (pal'a-tin) Hill, 60 

Palestine, 51, 225-230, 240, 241 

Palmers, 226 

Papacy, 215 

Panama, 279, 288, 302 

Panama (pan'a-mii) Canal, 280 

Paris, son of Priam, 21, 22, 24 

Parliament, 174-179, 340 

Parthenon, 42 

Patricians (pa-trish'anz), 62 

Paul, the Apostle, 104, 107 

Peace Conference, at Paris, 361 

Peace, the Roman, 94 

Peasants, medieval, 193-201 

Pericles (per'i-klez) , 39-43 

Persecutions of Christians, 105-109 

Pershing, General, 360 

Persia, 29-32, 38; conquered by 

Alexander, 49-52 
Peru, conquest of, 288, 292 
Peter, the Apostle, 107, 110 
Peter, the Hermit, 232 
Pheidippides (fl-dip'i-dez), 30, 32 
Philip Augustus, 242-246 
Philip, of Macedonia, 47-49 
Philip II, of Spain, 206, 297, 315- 

317, 319, 320, 325, 328 
Philippine (fil'ip-in). Islands, 281 
Pliilosopher, meaning of, 44 
Pilate, Pontius (pi'lat p6n'shi-us), 

104 
Pilgrimages, medieval, 225-230, 247 
Pisa (pe-za), 204 
Pizarro (pl-za'ro), 288 
Plebeians, 62 
Plymouth Colony, 338 
Pnyx (nix), at Athens, 39, 41 
Polo family, travels of, 257-260 
Polycarp, 108, 109 
Pompeii (pom-pa'ye), destruction 

of, 95; excavation of, 96; remains 

of, 96-100 
Pope, the, 110, 215, 294, 296 
Portcullis (of castle), 181, 183 
Portugal, 262-264, 267, 268, 294, 

321, 325 
Poseidon (po-si'don) [Neptune], 15, 

42 
Potato, 333 



INDEX 



377 



Presbyterian Church, 296 
Priam, King, 21-24 
Printing, 261, 262, 293 
Protestants, 296, 297 
Prussia, 348, 350 
Ptolemy (tol'e-mi), 55, 266 
Pueblos (pu-eb'loz), Indian, 289 
Puritan Revolution, 341 
"Puritans," 340 

Quebec, 311 

Railway 

Raleigh (rii'le), Sir Walter, 300, 
330, 334-336 

Reformation, the, 295-299, 307, 316 

Reign of Terror, 348, 349 

Remus (re'mus), 60 

Representative government, lack of 
under Romans, 91; rise in Eng- 
land, 175, 176 

Restoration in Europe, 352 

Revolution, French, 345-351; Glori- 
ous, 341, 342; Puritan, 341 

Richard the Lion-Hearted, 185, 240- 
247 

Rights of Man, 347 

Roads, Roman, 77, 78, 89 

Roanoke (ro'a-nok) Island, 331, 
334-337 

Robespierre (ro'bes-per) , 348, 349 

Roman Empire, 91-94, 120-130 

Roman Numerals, 249 

Rome, early days of, 57-62; repub- 
lic established in, 61 ; wars of, 
with neighbors, 60, 61, 63-66; 
struggles between classes in, 02 ; 
Italy conquered by, 67 ; wars of, 
with Carthage, 67-74; rules 
Mediterranean lands, 75; adopts 
Greek culture, 55, 56; conquers 
Gaul, 85-88; conquers Britain, 
88, 89; corruption in, 80; be- 
comes an empire, 91-94; be- 
comes Christian, 104-111; burned 
under Nero, 105, 107 ; sacked by 
Goths, 124 

Romulus (rom'u-lus), 60 



Rubicon River, 93 
Russia, 358 

St. Augustine (6-giis'tin), mission- 
ary, 148 

St. Benedict, 216, 220, 223 

St. Bernard (ber'nard), 224 

St. Clara, 216 

St. Dominic (dom'i-nik), 216 

St. Helena (lie-le'nii), 351 

St. Lawrence River, 310, 311 

St. Scholastica (sko-las'ti-kil) , 216 

Saladin (sfd'a-din) , 241, 242, 244, 
245 

Salamis (stil'a-mis), battle of, 35-38 

San Salvador, 273 

Saucy Castle, 185. 186 

Saxons, 142, 145 

Scipio Africanus (sip'i-6 af-ri-ca'- 
nus) , 73 

Scriptorium, 220 

"Sea Beggars," 318 

Sea of Darkness, 270 

Serbia, 358 

Shakespeare, William, 306 

Ships, Greek, 20; Venetian, 251, 
2.52; of Armada, 325 

Shops, Pompeian, 99; medieval, 207, 
208 

Sicily, 53, 67, 68, 72, 307 

Sidney, Sir Philip, 322, 323, 334 

Slavery, 200, 291, 302 

Socrates (sok'ra-tez), 44-46 

South Africa, 344 

South America, 274, 278, 288 

South Sea. See Pacific Ocean. 

Spain, Carthaginians in, 67, 68, 72; 
conquered by Rome, 75 ; Goths set- 
tle in, 125, 126; Moors in, 12.5, 
272; aids Columbus, 268, 269; 
conquests in America, 273, 274, 
278, 279, 283-293; in Philippine 
Islands, 282 ; European wars of, 
295, 296, 307; attacked by Eng- 
lish sailors, 302-303 ; Dutch revolt 
against, 314-320; Great Armada 
of, 321-329; decline of, 328 

Sparta, 25, 26; in Persian wars, 30, 
33, 38 ; war with Athens, 47 



378 



INDEX 



Spices, use of, 249; Venetian trade 

in, 252 
Spinning machinery, 355 
Steam engine, 355 
Steamboat, 356 
Stephen, Count, of Blois (blwii), 

236-237 
Stilicho (stiPi-ko), 123 
Submarines, 360 
Sussex, 145 
Switzerland, Reformation in, 296 

Templars, Knights, 241, 242 
Teutoberg Forest, 115, 116 
Teutons, 120-130 
Teutonic Knights, 241 
Themistocles (the-mis'to-klez), 35- 

38 
Thermopylae (ther-mop'Me), 33, 3.5 
Third Estate, 346, 347 
Thor, 118, 129, 147 . 
Tobacco, 333, 334 
Toga, 64, 102, 103 
Toscanelli (tos-ka-nil'i), 266 
Towns, medieval, 202-212 
Triumph, Roman, 78-80 
Trinidad (trin'i-dad), 4 
Troy, 21-24 
Turkey, 360 
Turks, Seljukian, 229, 230, 233, 236- 

239, 241, 242, 259; Ottoman, 260 
Tyr (ter), [Teutonic god], 118 
Tyre, 241 

Umias (ul'fil-as), 121 

United States, 360 

Urban II, Pope, 231 

Utrecht (u'trfikt), Union of, 318 

Valhalla (val'hal'^), 118 
Varus (va'rus), 116 
Venice, 104, 227, 247, 249-256, 260. 
264 



Venus. See Aphrodite 

Vera Cruz (va'ra kroos), 285 

Vercingetorix (ver-sin-jet'o-rix) , 85- 

88 
Verrazano (ver-ra-zan'o), 310 
Vespucius (v6s-pu'shu8), Americus, 

278, 279 
Vesuvius, 95 
Victory, goddess of, 42 
Vikings. Bee Northmen 
Villages, medieval, 193-201 
Villeins, medieval, 164, 194-201 
Vinland, 152 
Virginia, 331, 333-337 
Virginia Dare, 336 
Vows, monastic, 222, 223 

Walter the Penniless, 232-235 

War of the Roses, 295, 304 

Waterloo, 350 

Watling Street, 155 

Watt, James, 355 

Weaving, 355 

Welsh, 145 

Wessex, 145, 150, 153, 154, 156 

White, Governor John, 336-337 

William III, King, 342 

William of Orange, 317-319 

William the Conqueror, 161-167 

Wilson, President Woodrow, 360 

Windows, 304 

Witenagemot (wit'e-na-ge-mof ) , 

146, 174 
Woden (wo'dgn), 118, 129, 147 
Women, among ancient Teutons, 

115; right of, to vote, 344 

Xerxes (zgrx'6z). King, 31-38 

Yoke, passing under the, 65, 66 
Yucatan, 284 

Zama (za'ma), battle of, 73 

Zeus (ztis), [Jupiter], 15, 17, 19, 42 



